(a) Explain the factors encouraging infestation of pests during storage. Discuss control measures for pest infestation during…

(a) Factors encouraging pest infestation during storage, and control measures (20 marks)

Factors encouraging infestation:

• Grain moisture: grain stored above about 12 to 14% moisture (higher for oilseeds and pulses) favours insects, mites and moulds; dry grain slows their multiplication.
• Temperature: most stored-grain insects multiply fastest at about 25 to 35 °C, and below about 15 °C their development nearly stops.
• Relative humidity: above about 70% encourages insects and fungi, and grain absorbs moisture from air.
• Initial infestation: insects carried from the field, from old stock, bags, transport vehicles, threshing floors and cracks in the store (the pests include rice weevil, lesser grain borer, red flour beetle, khapra beetle, Angoumois grain moth, rice moth and pulse beetle).
• Poor hygiene: leftover grain, dust and debris, and mixing new grain with old.
• Damaged, broken or immature grain, and flour or dust, which attract secondary pests; also the variety and type of grain.
• Long storage, poor aeration, and unscientific storage structures with leaks and cracks, as well as rodents and birds.
• Lack of monitoring, so infestation is found late.

Control measures:

1. Preventive: dry grain to safe moisture (about 12% for cereals, 8 to 9% for oilseeds); clean and repair stores and disinfect them with a residual insecticide spray before storage; use clean, treated bags, dunnage and proper stacking, with separation of old and new stock; rodent-proofing of stores.
2. Physical and hermetic methods: airtight or hermetic storage (metal bins, silos, sealed bags), which starve insects of oxygen; low temperature and aeration; exposure to sun.
3. Botanicals and inert dusts: neem leaves and neem seed kernel powder, and diatomaceous earth or ash, especially for farm-level storage of seed and small quantities.
4. Curative chemical control: fumigation of sealed stacks with aluminium phosphide (phosphine) under trained supervision; contact insecticides on stack surfaces and bag surfaces; methyl bromide is now restricted.
5. Controlled atmosphere with raised carbon dioxide or nitrogen, and irradiation, for high-value stocks.
6. Rodent control by traps, baits (zinc phosphide, anticoagulants) and proofing.
7. Integrated management with regular inspection, pheromone and probe traps, and record-keeping.

(b) Production technology of carnation as a cut flower (20 marks)

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) is one of the leading cut flowers, grown mostly in protected cultivation.

Improved varieties: standard (single large flower) types, such as Master, Scania and Tanga, and spray types with several smaller flowers on a stem. Varieties are chosen for colour, stem length and strength, yield and calyx-splitting resistance.

Growing requirements and season: carnation prefers a cool, bright climate, with night temperature of about 10 to 12 °C and day temperature of about 18 to 21 °C, and high light; it is grown in polyhouses in the plains and hills, and in the open in cool hills. It needs a well-drained, friable, slightly acidic to neutral soil (pH 6 to 7) with low salinity, in raised beds. Rooted terminal cuttings, from healthy, disease-free mother plants, are planted in September to October in the plains, at about 15 to 20 cm spacing. The crop needs regular drip irrigation and fertigation, and supports of wire or plastic netting. Flowering starts about four to five months after planting, and the crop lasts one to two years.

Flower regulation: pinching (removal of the growing tip) is the main tool. Single pinching gives one early flush of flowers; one-and-a-half and double pinching stagger flowering and give more stems, so that the crop can be planned for peak demand periods. In standard types the side buds are removed (disbudding) so that one large terminal flower is left, and in spray types the terminal bud is removed so the side buds flower together. Long days and supplementary light in winter hasten flowering, and temperature and nutrition are managed to regulate the time.

Post-harvest handling: harvest in the morning at the paintbrush (early open) stage for local markets, or the tight-bud stage for distant ones. Grade by stem length, tie into bunches of 10 or 20, cool quickly to 2 to 4 °C, and hold in a solution with sucrose and a germicide. Because carnation is highly ethylene-sensitive, a pulse of silver thiosulphate or a similar anti-ethylene agent is used. Store at about 0 to 1 °C, packed in boxes.

Physiological disorders: calyx splitting (bursting), caused by temperature fluctuation, excess nitrogen, boron deficiency and irregular watering, and reduced by balanced nutrition, boron, steady temperature and by using rubber bands; blind shoots with no flower under low light or stress; bullheading (deformed flowers); and ethylene-induced petal in-rolling, or sleepiness, after harvest.

(c) Steps taken by the Government of India to improve the food processing industry (10 marks)

The Ministry of Food Processing Industries has taken these main steps to raise processing levels, cut post-harvest losses and improve farmers' income:

• Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (2017): an umbrella scheme for mega food parks, integrated cold chain and value-addition infrastructure, food processing and preservation capacities, agro-processing clusters, backward and forward linkages, and food safety and quality infrastructure.
• Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Food Processing (PLISFPI, 2021), with an outlay of ₹10,900 crore, to support the growth of Indian brands, and to encourage processing of ready-to-cook and ready-to-eat foods, processed fruit and vegetables, marine and mozzarella products, and to support small and medium enterprises.
• Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME, 2020): credit-linked subsidy for micro-enterprises, with a One District One Product approach, support for branding and marketing, common infrastructure, and seed capital for self-help groups.
• Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (₹1 lakh crore, 2020) for post-harvest infrastructure, and a Food Processing Fund of ₹2,000 crore with NABARD for concessional finance.
• 100% foreign direct investment through the automatic route in food processing, and credit from banks under priority-sector lending, in addition to the Operation Greens scheme for tomato, onion and potato.
• Food safety and quality through FSSAI regulations, and a policy to promote exports through APEDA.

Sustained progress depends on cold chain capacity, skilled manpower, and better links to farmers through producer organisations.