Describe Q. Nos. 5(a), 5(c), 5(d), 5(e) and answer Q. No. 5(b) (in about 150 words each): (a) Technologies and policies for…

(a) Technologies and policies for sustained crop production in rainfed agriculture

Rainfed areas make up roughly half of India's net sown area and depend on erratic monsoons. Technologies focus on in-situ moisture conservation (contour bunding, terracing, broad-bed furrows, mulching, conservation tillage), water harvesting in farm ponds and check dams for protective irrigation, drought-tolerant and short-duration varieties of millets, sorghum, pulses and oilseeds developed by ICAR and ICRISAT, and contingency crop planning for delayed or deficient rain, advanced by ICAR-CRIDA and the NICRA project (2011).

Policies include watershed development under the Watershed Development Component of PMKSY, MGNREGA works for water harvesting (now succeeded by the VB-G RAM G Act, 2025), the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture, micro-irrigation under 'Per Drop More Crop', soil-test-based nutrient use under the Soil Health Card scheme, and PMFBY to cover weather risk. Remunerative prices for millets and pulses support the shift to climate-resilient crops.

(b) ICTs in agriculture: definition and initiatives

ICTs are digital tools, including mobile phones, the internet, satellites, sensors and software, used to create, store, exchange and use information. In agriculture they bridge the information gap between research, markets and farmers.

Initiatives: Kisan Call Centres (2004, toll-free 1551) for voice advisories in local languages; mKisan (2013) SMS advisories on weather, prices and crops; e-NAM (2016), the national electronic trading platform for transparent price discovery; Agmarknet for market prices; the Kisan Suvidha app and the Soil Health Card portal; and AgriStack and Farmer ID under the Digital Agriculture Mission (2024), which build a unified farmer registry to deliver schemes. Drones are promoted for spraying and crop monitoring, for instance through the Namo Drone Didi scheme for women's self-help groups (2023). Poor rural connectivity, low digital literacy and language barriers still limit uptake.

(c) Minimum Support Price (MSP) and its determination

MSP is the price at which the government stands ready to purchase crops, announced to protect farmers from sharp price falls and to guide cropping. It covers 22 mandated crops (14 kharif, 6 rabi and two commercial crops), while sugarcane gets a Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP).

The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends MSP after examining cost of production (A2+FL, with C2 also considered), demand and supply, domestic and international price trends, input-output price parity, effect on inflation and the terms of trade between agriculture and other sectors. The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs approves the final MSP. Since Budget 2018-19 the government has announced MSP at not less than 1.5 times A2+FL cost, whereas the Swaminathan Commission (2006) had recommended 50% over comprehensive C2 cost. Procurement is by FCI, NAFED and state agencies, concentrated in a few crops and States; PM-AASHA (2018) extends support to oilseeds and pulses.

(d) Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and its progress

PMFBY (2016) insures farmers against yield loss from natural calamities, pests and diseases, prevented sowing and post-harvest losses. Farmers pay a uniform premium of 2% for kharif food and oilseed crops, 1.5% for rabi and 5% for commercial and horticultural crops; the balance is shared by the Centre and States, with the Centre bearing 90% in the North-East. Losses are assessed through crop cutting experiments, now aided by remote sensing, drones and smartphone apps. It replaced earlier schemes (NAIS, MNAIS) with lower premiums and broader cover, and enrolment was made voluntary for all farmers in 2020.

Progress: government data show about 78 crore farmer applications insured and about ₹1.83 lakh crore in claims paid by 2025. Persistent concerns are delayed claim settlement, disputes over crop-cutting data, low coverage in some eastern States and the exit of some States.

(e) Parameters for irrigation water quality

Quality depends on salt content and the effect on soil and crop. Electrical conductivity (EC) measures salinity, with USDA classes C1 (below 0.25 dS/m) to C4 (above 2.25 dS/m). Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) measures the sodium hazard, with classes S1 (below 10) to S4 (above 26); a high SAR disperses soil and lowers permeability. Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) measures alkalinity: below 1.25 meq/L is safe, above 2.5 unsafe.

Other parameters: pH (normal 6.5-8.4), bicarbonate and chloride, specific ion toxicities from boron, sodium and chloride (citrus and other fruit crops are sensitive), and nitrate. The C-S combination, for example C3S1, guides the choice of crop and soil management such as gypsum application and leaching.