(a) Discuss the ways and means of minimising erosion for conserving soil. (10 marks) (b) What are the major aims of irrigation?…

(a) Ways and means of minimising soil erosion

Erosion is predicted by the Universal Soil Loss Equation, A = R·K·L·S·C·P, where conservation works mainly through crop cover (C), practice (P) and slope length (L).

Agronomic measures suit gentle slopes: contour farming, strip cropping, cover crops and mulching, crop rotation with close-growing legumes, conservation tillage and organic matter addition to improve aggregation and infiltration.

Mechanical measures suit steeper land: contour and graded bunds, bench terraces on hill slopes, contour trenches, gully plugging and check dams, and diversion drains, which cut runoff velocity and intercept flow.

Vegetative measures include vetiver hedges, grassed waterways, agroforestry and silvopasture, and shelterbelts and windbreaks for wind erosion in arid regions. They are best combined on a watershed basis (as in the watershed programme of PMKSY) with cooperation from farmers, so that treatment proceeds from ridge to valley.

(b) Aims of irrigation and irrigation efficiencies

Irrigation aims at assuring water during dry spells, guarding against drought, stabilising yield, enabling multiple and off-season cropping, dissolving and moving nutrients, cooling soil and leaching salts.

The method is judged by these efficiencies:

• Conveyance efficiency = water delivered to the field ÷ water diverted from the source × 100, measuring canal seepage and evaporation losses.
• Application efficiency = water stored in the root zone ÷ water delivered to the field × 100; surface methods give about 40–60% and drip 85–95%.
• Storage efficiency = water stored in the root zone ÷ water needed to refill it × 100.
• Distribution (uniformity) efficiency = (1 − y/d) × 100, where y is the mean deviation from the average depth d.
• Water use efficiency = crop yield per unit of water used (kg/ha-mm or kg/m³).

The best method scores high on all of them, and drip and sprinkler usually do.

(c) Farm women empowerment and self-help groups

Issues: women are a large share of the agricultural workforce, yet hold only about 14% of operational holdings; they face unequal wages, poor access to credit, inputs, extension and markets, drudgery with unsuitable tools, and exclusion from decisions and from recognition as farmers.

SHGs help by giving collateral-free savings and credit linked with banks, which builds financial independence; by collective production and marketing, such as Kudumbashree joint-liability groups farming leased land in Kerala; by training and inputs under the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (2011) on agro-ecological practice, seed and livestock; and by custom-hiring centres with light implements that reduce drudgery. Under DAY-NRLM, about 10 crore women are in SHGs, and leadership and group voice enlarge their say at home and in panchayats.

(d) Types of agricultural markets in India

By location and function, India has primary markets (village haats and periodic markets, where small farmers sell to local traders), secondary markets (wholesale mandis at district or taluk level, where commission agents, or arhtiyas, handle bulk trade) and terminal markets (in large cities and ports that supply processors, consumers and exporters).

By regulation: regulated markets under state APMC Acts, with licensed traders, open auction and standard weights, and the Electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM, 2016), which links mandis on one online platform.

Others include cooperative markets such as Amul and NAFED, direct farmers' markets (Rythu Bazaars in Andhra Pradesh, Apni Mandi in Punjab, Uzhavar Sandhai in Tamil Nadu), contract farming, farmer-producer organisations and commodity exchanges. The three 2020 farm laws that would have widened private markets were repealed in 2021.

(e) Government efforts for extension, renovation and modernisation of irrigation projects

The gap between irrigation potential created and utilised is addressed through:

• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (2015–16) with Har Khet Ko Pani, which brings the Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP, 1996–97) to complete major and medium projects.
• Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) for field channels, relining and on-farm works.
• Repair, Renovation and Restoration of water bodies.
• Participatory Irrigation Management through Water Users Associations, with Andhra Pradesh's 1997 Act as a model.
• Per Drop More Crop for drip and sprinkler, supported by the Micro Irrigation Fund (NABARD).
• Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP, World Bank assisted) for dam safety.

Together they aim to convert potential into use and raise water productivity.