(a) Briefly discuss the crop management practices for stabilising yield in dryland areas. Enlist the crops with their…

Part (a): Dryland Crop Management and Suitable Crops

Stabilizing yield in dryland (rainfed) areas, which make up about half of India’s net sown area, requires an integrated approach focusing on moisture conservation, soil health, and contingency planning. Moisture conservation is paramount; practices include mulching with straw or plastic to reduce evaporation, contour bunding to check runoff, and the application of anti-transpirants. It is crucial to distinguish between film-forming agents, such as waxes or emulsions that create a physical barrier, and metabolic agents like phenylmercuric acetate (PMA), which chemically induce stomatal closure to limit transpiration. Soil management involves deep tillage to break hardpans and improve water infiltration, alongside zero-till sowing to preserve soil moisture. Nutrient management shifts towards micro-dosing of fertilizers at the root zone to maximize efficiency and reduce leaching, supplemented by foliar feeding during stress periods. Crop management also relies on an optimal plant stand and wider row spacing, intercropping (e.g., pigeonpea with sorghum, pearl millet or groundnut) that spreads risk, and harvesting runoff in farm ponds for one life-saving irrigation at a critical stage. Contingency crop plans (district plans prepared by ICAR-CRIDA) prescribe alternative short-duration crops and varieties when the monsoon is delayed or breaks mid-season.

Crops suitable for drylands possess specific physiological traits: deep root systems to access sub-soil moisture, C4 photosynthetic pathways for higher water-use efficiency, and mechanisms for drought escape (short duration) or tolerance (osmotic adjustment). Key examples include millets like Bajra (pearl millet), Jowar (sorghum), and Ragi (finger millet), which are highly resilient to low rainfall. Pulses such as Pigeonpea and Mungbean fix nitrogen and tolerate moderate drought. Oilseeds like Castor and Groundnut are also well-adapted. Recent advancements include ICAR-developed hybrids of pearl millet and sorghum that offer higher yields under water-limited conditions.

Part (b): Irrigation Trends and Project Classification

Since independence, India’s irrigation landscape has undergone a radical structural shift. In 1950–51 the net irrigated area was about 21 million hectares: canals supplied about 40%, wells (almost all open dug wells) about 29%, tanks about 17% and other sources about 14%. Since then the net irrigated area has more than tripled, and the hierarchy has inverted. Canal irrigation expanded in absolute terms with large projects but its share fell to about a quarter, owing to slow completion of projects, poor maintenance and waterlogging. Groundwater, mainly tube wells and borewells spread by cheap pumps and rural electrification after the Green Revolution, now supplies over 60% of the net irrigated area, causing severe depletion in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. Tank irrigation declined sharply to only a few per cent as tanks silted and were encroached. Micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler) spread from the 1980s and has expanded under PMKSY's Per Drop More Crop component since 2015.

Irrigation projects are classified based on three criteria. First, by Cultivable Command Area (CCA): Major projects have a CCA of 10,000 hectares or more (e.g., Bhakra Nangal, Sardar Sarovar); Medium projects range between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares; Minor projects are under 2,000 hectares. Second, by purpose: Single-purpose projects serve only irrigation (e.g., some minor canals), whereas Multi-purpose projects serve irrigation, power generation, flood control, and navigation (e.g., Bhakra Nangal). Third, by financial return: Productive irrigation projects are economically viable and generate revenue, while Protective irrigation projects are undertaken as insurance against drought and famine in scarcity-prone areas, often with negative financial returns but high social utility.

Part (c): Leagans’ Extension Education Process

Leagans (1967) described extension education as a continuous, cyclic process of five steps. The first step is Analysis of the situation, where the extension worker collects facts about farmers’ practices, resources and constraints and identifies their problems. The second step is Deciding the objectives, setting realistic, desirable changes in farmers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes that the programme should achieve. The third step is Teaching, choosing what to teach and the methods and aids (demonstrations, meetings, visits) to bring about the desired change. The fourth step is Evaluating the teaching, measuring how far the objectives have been reached. The final step is Reconsideration, where the whole programme is reviewed in the light of the evaluation and a revised cycle begins.