(a) Briefly discuss the crop management practices for stabilising yield in dryland areas. Enlist the crops with their…

Part (a): Dryland Crop Management and Suitable Crops

Stabilizing yield in dryland areas, which constitute 52% of India’s net sown area, requires an integrated approach focusing on moisture conservation, soil health, and contingency planning. Moisture conservation is paramount; practices include mulching with straw or plastic to reduce evaporation, contour bunding to check runoff, and the application of anti-transpirants. It is crucial to distinguish between film-forming agents, such as waxes or emulsions that create a physical barrier, and metabolic agents like phenylmercuric acetate (PMA), which chemically induce stomatal closure to limit transpiration. Soil management involves deep tillage to break hardpans and improve water infiltration, alongside zero-till sowing to preserve soil moisture. Nutrient management shifts towards micro-dosing of fertilizers at the root zone to maximize efficiency and reduce leaching, supplemented by foliar feeding during stress periods. Contingency planning involves timely sowing of short-duration varieties and the use of drought-tolerant hybrids developed by ICAR institutes.

Crops suitable for drylands possess specific physiological traits: deep root systems to access sub-soil moisture, C4 photosynthetic pathways for higher water-use efficiency, and mechanisms for drought escape (short duration) or tolerance (osmotic adjustment). Key examples include millets like Bajra (pearl millet), Jowar (sorghum), and Ragi (finger millet), which are highly resilient to low rainfall. Pulses such as Pigeonpea and Mungbean fix nitrogen and tolerate moderate drought. Oilseeds like Castor and Groundnut are also well-adapted. Recent advancements include ICAR-developed hybrids of pearl millet and sorghum that offer higher yields under water-limited conditions.

Part (b): Irrigation Trends and Project Classification

Since independence, India’s irrigation landscape has undergone a radical structural shift. At independence, canal irrigation dominated, accounting for approximately 40% of the net irrigated area, while groundwater extraction was primarily through dug wells, contributing about 28-29% of the total. Tube wells and borewells were negligible. By the 2010s, this hierarchy inverted. Canal irrigation’s share declined to roughly 25% due to the stagnation of new large-scale projects and waterlogging issues. Conversely, groundwater irrigation surged to over 60% of the net irrigated area, driven by the proliferation of tube wells and borewells, leading to severe depletion in states like Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. Tank irrigation has remained relatively stagnant, while micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler) emerged post-1980s and has expanded significantly under the PMKSY scheme, covering over 60 lakh hectares recently.

Irrigation projects are classified based on three criteria. First, by Cultivable Command Area (CCA): Major projects have a CCA of 10,000 hectares or more (e.g., Bhakra Nangal, Sardar Sarovar); Medium projects range between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares; Minor projects are under 2,000 hectares. Second, by purpose: Single-purpose projects serve only irrigation (e.g., some minor canals), whereas Multi-purpose projects serve irrigation, power generation, flood control, and navigation (e.g., Bhakra Nangal). Third, by financial return: Productive irrigation projects are economically viable and generate revenue, while Protective irrigation projects are undertaken for flood control or ecological balance, often with negative financial returns but high social utility.

Part (c): Leagans’ Extension Education Process

Leagans (1967) outlined a five-step problem-solving process for extension education, which is systematic and participatory. The first step is Collecting facts about the situation, where the extension worker gathers data on the farmer’s current practices, resources, and constraints through observation and interviews. The second step is Analyzing and interpreting the situation, involving the identification of gaps between the current state and the desired state, and understanding the root causes of low productivity. The third step is Selecting, defining, and limiting the problem, where the most critical issue is isolated from other secondary problems to focus efforts effectively. The fourth step is Determining possible solutions and making the decision, where alternatives are evaluated based on feasibility, cost, and impact, and a consensus is reached with the farmer. The final step is Taking action and accepting responsibility, where the chosen solution is implemented, and the extension worker supports the farmer in monitoring outcomes and adapting strategies as needed.

Conclusion

Effective agricultural development in India requires the convergence of dryland management technologies, rational irrigation policy, and robust extension mechanisms. While the shift to groundwater has boosted production, it has compromised sustainability; thus, a return to canal-based and micro-irrigation systems is essential. Applying Leagans’ problem-solving framework ensures that these technologies are adopted contextually by farmers, bridging the gap between research and farm practice for holistic, climate-resilient agriculture.