(a) Discuss the reserves, distribution and production of all varieties of coal in India. 20 (b) Describe the salient features of…

India’s coal geography is shaped by two major geological systems: the Gondwana basins of peninsular India and the Tertiary deposits of the northeast. Coal reserves, distribution and production. Anthracite is the highest-rank coal but its Indian reserves and production are negligible, with minor occurrences in Jammu and Kashmir. Bituminous and sub-bituminous coals form the bulk of hard-coal reserves, estimated at over 300 billion tonnes, concentrated in Gondwana basins of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. Lignite, the lowest-rank coal, has substantial reserves, about 45.8 billion tonnes, roughly 11-13% of combined coal and lignite reserves, and is found in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and the northeast. Tertiary coal, mostly sub-bituminous and lignite, occurs in Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh; it is geographically significant but quantitatively small. Gondwana coal therefore supplies the overwhelming bulk of hard-coal production, while Tertiary and lignite output remain regionally important. Production follows the same pattern but with state-level shifts. Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand lead hard-coal production, while Madhya Pradesh and Telangana/Maharashtra are also important; West Bengal remains relevant, especially for coking coal, but is not among the top five producers. Total coal and lignite production now exceeds 1,000 million tonnes, with Coal India Ltd accounting for about 80% of domestic output; captive mining by power, steel and cement units has increased private participation. Variety-wise, bituminous and sub-bituminous hard coal dominates output; lignite supplies only about 4-5% of total coal and lignite production, mostly for nearby thermal plants; tertiary coal is minor. Coking coal production is limited and quality-variable, so India remains import-dependent for metallurgical coal.

East-flowing rivers. The Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Cauvery and Pennar rise mainly in the Western Ghats or Deccan and flow eastward to the Bay of Bengal. Their salient features include smaller drainage basins than the larger Himalayan river systems, strong monsoon dependence, seasonal flow with high flood peaks and low dry-season discharge, and the development of broad deltas, especially Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi and Cauvery; Pennar has a smaller deltaic signature. Their basins are less glaciated and therefore less perennial, though upper reaches support reservoirs and hydel projects. These deltas are agriculturally vital for rice, sugarcane, cotton and horticulture. Compared with west-flowing rivers such as the Narmada, Tapi and Sabarmati, east-flowing rivers generally have larger catchments, longer courses, more alluvial plains, higher sediment loads in lower reaches, and greater hydroelectric potential in their upper reaches. West-flowing rivers are often shorter, rift-valley or steep-gradient, and less deltaic.

Inter-State border disputes. India’s border disputes often combine linguistic identity, colonial demarcation and resource or strategic interests. Resource-based causes include control over water, forests, minerals and border trade. The Belgaum/Kalaburagi dispute between Karnataka and Maharashtra centred on Kannada-speaking areas; Supreme Court intervention in 1976 largely settled the boundary, yet local grievances persist. The Kasaragod issue between Kerala and Karnataka reflects similar linguistic and administrative tensions. The Kutch-Sindh boundary, though international, shows how colonial lines and resource/strategic concerns can harden disputes. Northeastern boundary issues, including India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh segments and internal state boundaries, involve tribal mobility, forest rights, water and land. Institutional mechanisms include the Inter-State Council under Article 263, Zonal Councils, and Supreme Court adjudication. The Inter-State Council is consultative and lacks binding force; Zonal Councils provide dialogue but depend on political will; Supreme Court decisions are authoritative but can be slow and may not resolve underlying socio-economic claims. A durable way forward requires transparent demarcation, data-based resource sharing, respect for linguistic and tribal identities, and stronger federal negotiation, so that border questions do not undermine development or national integration.