(a) A large number of Indian cities have a complex morphological characteristics due to their historical evolution. Elucidate…

(a) Morphological complexity of Indian cities from their historical evolution

The form of a city is the pattern of its streets, plots, buildings and land uses. Indian cities layer the products of several periods, so they do not follow a single model such as Burgess's concentric zones, and are nearer to a multiple-nuclei form.

(i) Ancient and temple cities. Varanasi, Madurai and Ujjain grew around a sacred core, with ghats or temples, narrow lanes and dense mixed use, along a river or tank. Madurai has concentric streets around the Meenakshi temple, and planned towns such as Jaipur (18th century) followed a grid with bazaars.

(ii) Medieval cities. Delhi's Shahjahanabad and Hyderabad's old city have a fort or palace, a great mosque, a main bazaar, walled quarters (mohallas, katras) and courtyard houses, with organic, irregular lanes.

(iii) Colonial cities. The British added a dual city: cantonments, civil lines, wide roads and bungalows, as in Delhi, Lucknow and Pune, beside the dense "native town", as in Kolkata's White and Black Towns, and Madras and Bombay around their forts. Railways, ports and mills formed new industrial belts and railway colonies.

(iv) Post-independence. Planned towns such as Chandigarh, Gandhinagar and Bhubaneswar, new towns such as Navi Mumbai, then rapid expansion with informal settlements, slums, peri-urban sprawl, highway corridors, gated estates and IT parks.

The result is a mosaic of old walled cores, colonial enclaves, planned sectors and unplanned fringes, with contrasting density and land use, which creates problems of congestion, conservation and planning.

(b) Organic farming and sustainable agriculture

Organic farming uses compost, green manure, biofertilisers, crop rotation and biological pest control, without synthetic chemicals.

(i) Environmental. It rebuilds soil organic carbon and microbial life, reduces contamination of water and food by fertilisers and pesticides, conserves biodiversity and cuts greenhouse gas emissions. It is well suited to rainfed and fragile areas, such as the north-east and hills.

(ii) Economic. Input costs fall, and premium prices and export markets, such as for spices, tea, basmati and millets, help small farmers. Sikkim became the first fully organic state in 2016.

(iii) Social and health. Safer food and reduced exposure to chemicals, and use of local knowledge and livestock.

(iv) Policy. The Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana, MOVCDNER for the north-east, PGS-India certification, the National Programme for Organic Production and the National Mission on Natural Farming support it.

Constraints. Yields can fall in the transition years, certification and marketing are costly, biomass is limited, and large-scale food needs cannot be met by organic methods alone. A balanced path combines organic, natural and integrated nutrient management with site-specific use of inputs.

(c) Geopolitical impact of India-Sri Lanka relations

Sri Lanka lies close to the main east-west sea lanes of the Indian Ocean, 30 km across the Palk Strait from India, which makes the relationship central to India's security and to the region.

(i) Strategic. The bilateral ties shape India's Indian Ocean position. Chinese investment, including the Hambantota Port on a 99-year lease since 2017, the Colombo Port City and visits by research ships, raised concern over encirclement. India responds with the Neighbourhood First and SAGAR (now MAHASAGAR) approaches, investment in Colombo, energy and defence cooperation, including the Trincomalee energy hub.

(ii) Economic. India provided about US$4 billion of support in the 2022 crisis and helped the debt restructuring. Trade, the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement, tourism, connectivity and use of rupee and UPI payments add to ties.

(iii) Political and ethnic. The Tamil question, the 1987 Indo-Lanka Accord and the 13th Amendment affect politics in Tamil Nadu and in Colombo.

(iv) Irritants. Fishermen's arrests in the Palk Bay, Katchatheevu and bottom trawling, and Sri Lankan balancing between India and China.

The relationship gives each a stake in regional stability, but it needs sensitivity to Sri Lanka's sovereignty and economic needs.