(a) Discuss the different stages of Indian feudalism and analyze its impact on Indian political system. (b) Do you consider…

(a) Stages of Indian feudalism and its political impact

On the model of R. S. Sharma, feudalism began with land grants of the Gupta and post-Gupta age (4th–6th centuries), when grants of land and revenue to Brahmins, temples and officers passed fiscal and judicial powers to grantees. It grew from the 7th century as rulers rewarded samantas, who rose to mahasamanta rank, and reached its peak in the 9th–12th centuries, when central authority weakened and a hierarchy of overlords and vassals emerged.

Politically it decentralised power: local chiefs held armed retinues and collected revenue, kings became first among many, and the empire fragmented into regional kingdoms such as the Rajput states, with frequent conflicts and weaker resistance to external invasion. Critics such as B. D. Chattopadhyaya and Harbans Mukhia question the model and prefer terms like integrative polity.

(b) Was Iltutmish the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate?

Qutbuddin Aibak began the Sultanate, but Iltutmish (1211–36) gave it a lasting form, so many historians call him the real founder. He made Delhi the capital, defeated rivals such as Yildiz and Qubacha, and reasserted rule over Bengal and Ranthambore. In 1229 he received a formal investiture from the Abbasid caliph, giving legitimacy. He introduced the silver tanka and copper jital as standard coins, organised the iqta system, and built a loyal corps of Turkish nobles, the Chihalgani. He also kept the Mongols away by refusing refuge to Jalaluddin Mangbarni.

Aibak was a sovereign in practice but ruled a short time, from Lahore, and the Sultanate's institutions were yet to be built, so Iltutmish has the stronger claim.

(c) Persian literature in the Delhi Sultanate

Several categories emerged. Historical chronicles include Hasan Nizami's Taj-ul-Maasir, Minhaj Siraj's Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Barani's Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi and Afif's work of the same title, with Isami's verse Futuh-us-Salatin. Poetry developed with Amir Khusrau, who wrote ghazals, masnavis and the historical Khazain-ul-Futuh, and Hasan Dehlavi. Sufi literature includes malfuzat, conversations of saints, such as Amir Hasan Sijzi's Fawaid-ul-Fuad. Court letters and manuals of statecraft, advice literature and treatises on governance also appeared. Together they show Persian as the language of administration and culture.

(d) Babur's victory at the First Battle of Panipat (1526)

Babur's army was far smaller than Ibrahim Lodi's, but he won through tactics and weapons: firearms and artillery handled by Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa, protected by wagons (araba) lashed together, and the Uzbek tulughma flanking movement which enveloped the Afghan centre. Ibrahim's army was less disciplined and unfamiliar with field artillery. Weaknesses on the Lodi side helped: Ibrahim's harsh treatment of nobles alienated them, and Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan invited Babur, so Afghan unity was missing. Babur's experience of Central Asian warfare and leadership completed the result.

(e) Chishti and Suhrawardi attitudes to the state

Chishti saints such as Moinuddin, Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar and Nizamuddin Auliya kept their distance from rulers, refusing jagirs and official posts, living by voluntary poverty at open khanqahs welcoming all classes. Nizamuddin avoided meeting sultans, and his reputed words "Delhi is far away" express this.

Suhrawardi saints such as Bahauddin Zakariya of Multan accepted state grants and office, held substantial wealth and maintained links with rulers; Sadruddin Arif followed. They held that wealth and cooperation could serve religion. Hence Chishtis were independent of the state, Suhrawardis integrated with it.