(a) "Span of management plays important role in deciding organization structure." Explain. (10 marks) (b) "Dependency is…

(a) Span of management and organisation structure

Span of management is the number of subordinates who report directly to one manager. It largely decides how an organisation is shaped. A narrow span needs more supervisors for the same workforce, so the structure grows tall, with many levels, long scalar chains, higher supervisory cost and slower, more distorted communication. A wide span gives a flat structure with fewer levels, quicker decisions and more autonomy for subordinates, but risks overload and weak supervision.

V. A. Graicunas showed why the span cannot be unlimited: with n subordinates the possible relationships are n(2^(n-1) + n − 1), so with 4 subordinates there are 44 and with 8 there are 1,080.

The right span depends on the manager's ability, subordinates' competence and training, the routineness of work, the clarity of standards, geographic spread and the quality of communication. A routine assembly line suits a wide span, while research or top management suits a narrow one.

(b) Dependency as the basis of power

Power is relational, not a personal possession. Emerson's power-dependence principle holds that A's power over B equals B's dependence on A. Dependence is greater when B has few alternatives to what A controls.

Three factors raise it. First, importance: the resource must matter to the work or survival of the other party, such as a maintenance engineer's skill when machines are critical. Second, scarcity: if many can supply it, no one holds power, so rare knowledge or a unique supplier gives leverage. Third, non-substitutability: if nothing can replace it, the other party cannot walk away. Thus a sole-source vendor or the only specialist surgeon holds great power, while a replaceable clerk holds none.

Pfeffer and Salancik's resource dependence theory and Hickson's strategic contingencies theory say the same about units that cope with uncertainty. Power is also reduced by finding alternatives, and dependence can be mutual, so the weaker party often gains by building other options.

(c) Conditions for conflict and the effect of the communication channel

Following Robbins, conflict needs potential opposition, which arises from three sets of conditions.

(i) Communication: semantic difficulties, misunderstanding, noise in the channel, and either too little or too much information.

(ii) Structure: larger size and specialisation, goal incompatibility between units, interdependence, ambiguity of jurisdiction, leadership style, reward systems and dependence on shared resources.

(iii) Personal variables: differing values, personality types such as authoritarian or dogmatic persons, and individual perceptions.

The channel chosen matters. Filtering as information passes through a long chain, and selective perception, create distortion. A lean channel such as a memo or email for an ambiguous or emotive matter leaves out tone and feedback and invites misreading, while a rich channel such as face-to-face talk allows clarification. Either too little or too much communication also stimulates conflict.

(d) Workers' education: concept, aims and objectives

Workers' education is a planned programme to make workers aware of their rights and duties, trade unionism, labour laws, the economy and their role in industry, going beyond skills to develop citizenship and leadership. It is called latent energy because an informed workforce raises productivity, cooperates in change and supports industrial peace, which helps development. In India the Central Board for Workers Education, now the Dattopant Thengadi National Board for Workers Education and Development, runs the scheme through regional and sub-regional centres.

Its aims are to develop an informed and responsible workforce, to raise workers' awareness of their rights and obligations, and to prepare leaders from within the ranks.

Its objectives include literacy and general education, understanding of labour law, collective bargaining and grievance procedures, health and safety awareness, and training in productivity, thrift and family welfare, with the larger purpose of industrial democracy.

(e) Collective bargaining issues in Indian industries and the issue of the future

The main issues are wages and dearness allowance linked to the consumer price index, bonus (now under the Code on Wages, 2019), working hours and leave, job security including retrenchment, lay-off and voluntary retirement, the regularisation of contract workers and equal pay for them, productivity-linked pay, and workplace safety, welfare and social security. Bargaining has been mostly at plant level, and union rivalry and political affiliation often complicate it.

The labour codes in force since 21 November 2025 change the setting. Fixed-term employment, easier retrenchment thresholds and the recognition of negotiating unions are likely to become bargaining issues.

For the future, the most important issue will be the terms of platform and gig work, together with job loss from automation and artificial intelligence. Workers will seek transparent algorithms, protection against arbitrary deactivation, minimum earnings and portable social security under the Code on Social Security, 2020, and reskilling. Bargaining will also have to move beyond the single plant to sectoral and platform level.