(a) Which approaches to motivation are more commonly used in an organization? How these approaches might help to sustain or…

(a) Approaches to motivation used in organisations, and how they sustain it Commonly used approaches:

• Content theories: Maslow's hierarchy, Herzberg's two-factor theory (hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, motivators such as achievement and recognition raise motivation) and McClelland's needs for achievement, affiliation and power.
• Process theories: Vroom's expectancy theory (expectancy, instrumentality, valence), Adams' equity theory (perceived fairness of input-outcome ratios) and Locke's goal-setting theory (specific, challenging goals with feedback).
• Contemporary frameworks: Self-Determination Theory (autonomy, competence, relatedness) and Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model (skill variety, task identity, significance, autonomy, feedback).

How they help:

• Goal-setting and expectancy translate into clear targets, regular feedback and visible links between effort, performance and reward.
• Equity theory supports transparent, fair pay and promotion.
• Herzberg and Maslow guide welfare and working conditions as a base, with growth opportunities above it.
• SDT and the Job Characteristics Model lead to job enrichment, autonomy-supportive leadership and skill development, which sustain engagement and prevent burnout.
• McClelland's work informs placing high-achievers in challenging roles. Indian firms have used stock-option plans (Infosys was an early adopter) to link reward to ownership.

(b) Types of meditation and effects on health and well-being Types:

• Concentrative (focused attention): attention on a single object, breath or mantra, as in Transcendental Meditation.
• Mindfulness / open monitoring: Vipassana and Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction.
• Loving-kindness (metta) and compassion meditation.
• Movement-based practices: yoga, tai chi and qigong.

Effects:

• Reduced stress reactivity: lower cortisol and sympathetic arousal, lower blood pressure and better cardiovascular indices.
• Brain changes: studies by Lazar and Hölzel report changes in the prefrontal cortex, insula and hippocampus, and reduced amygdala reactivity, linked to better attention and emotion regulation.
• Mental health: mindfulness-based cognitive therapy lowers relapse in recurrent depression, and meditation reduces anxiety, rumination and insomnia.
• Well-being: improved attention, sleep, pain coping and positive affect.

Evidence quality varies, as many studies are small, lack active controls, or rely on self-report.

(c) Computer applications in psychological practice

• Clinical: telepsychology and online counselling, digital screening and CBT apps, and AI-based chat tools (for example Wysa) for triage and support. Virtual-reality exposure treats phobias and PTSD.
• Assessment: computerised and adaptive testing with automated scoring and norms, and neuropsychological batteries (such as CANTAB) that record reaction times precisely.
• Education and counselling: adaptive learning and intelligent tutoring, and online career guidance.
• Organisational: online selection tests, simulation-based training, and people analytics.
• Research: experiment-building software, statistical packages (SPSS, R, Python), and neuroimaging software for fMRI and EEG analysis.

Ethical limits: data privacy and confidentiality, algorithmic bias, reduced therapeutic alliance, unsupervised use, and unequal digital access.