(a) How does power in organizations tend to concentrate in the hands of a few persons? Discuss the tactics used to gain power…

(a) Concentration of power in organisations and tactics to gain it Why power concentrates:

• Michels' iron law of oligarchy: large organisations need coordination, specialisation and control of communication, so authority passes to a small administrative elite.
• Strategic contingencies (Hickson): units gain power by coping with critical uncertainty, being hard to replace and being central to the workflow.
• Resources and information: control over scarce resources, expertise and information channels is self-reinforcing.
• Psychological factors: power-holders seek to keep power, and subordinates defer (high power distance in Indian organisations).

Tactics (Kipnis; Pfeffer; French and Raven's bases of power):

• Controlling information and the agenda.
• Building networks and coalitions, and co-opting potential opponents.
• Using expertise, rewards and legitimate authority.
• Impression management, ingratiation and self-promotion.
• Rational persuasion, and in some cases pressure and exchange.

Left unchecked, concentration can stifle upward communication and innovation. Participation and transparent rules act as checks.

(b) Strategies for motivating students from disadvantaged groups

• Build self-efficacy: structured mastery experiences, small achievable goals and relatable role models (Bandura).
• Growth mindset and values affirmation (Dweck) to counter stereotype threat (Steele and Aronson).
• Culturally responsive teaching: use local language and context, and validate students' lived experience.
• Mentoring and peer support: senior peers and teachers who give belonging and guidance, and remedial bridge courses.
• Teacher expectations: high expectations, which avoid the Pygmalion effect in reverse.
• Structural supports: scholarships, reservation, hostels, and nutrition support through PM POSHAN reduce material barriers.
• Family and community involvement: sensitising parents, particularly of first-generation learners, and addressing language and digital gaps.
• Career exposure and recognition: link education to realistic future outcomes and celebrate success.

(c) Types of anxiety disorders and behavioural approaches Types (DSM-5 / ICD-11):

• Generalised anxiety disorder: persistent, uncontrollable worry.
• Panic disorder: recurrent unexpected panic attacks with fear of further attacks.
• Specific phobia and agoraphobia: intense fear of circumscribed objects or of situations that are hard to escape.
• Social anxiety disorder: fear of negative evaluation.
• Separation anxiety disorder and selective mutism. (OCD and PTSD are classified separately in DSM-5.)

Behavioural approaches:

• Systematic desensitisation (Wolpe): an anxiety hierarchy is paired with relaxation (Jacobson's progressive muscle relaxation) through reciprocal inhibition.
• Exposure therapy: graded in-vivo, imaginal and virtual-reality exposure lead to habituation and extinction. Flooding is rapid, prolonged exposure to the most feared stimulus. Exposure with response prevention is used for OCD.
• Participant modelling (Bandura): the patient watches a non-anxious model, then practises with guidance.
• Relaxation, breathing training and biofeedback.
• Cognitive behaviour therapy combines exposure with restructuring of catastrophic thinking.

In India these are delivered through the District Mental Health Programme and Tele-MANAS. Medication (SSRIs) can give early relief, while behavioural approaches give skills that lower relapse.