(a) What are the forms of social conflicts? Explain the methods of resolution of social conflicts. (15 marks) (b) In the light of…

(a) Forms of social conflict and methods of resolution Forms:

• Interpersonal: between individuals (family, neighbours, colleagues).
• Intragroup: factionalism within a group or organisation.
• Intergroup: between caste, religious, linguistic, regional or class groups.
• Institutional or structural: between marginalised groups and institutions over resources and rights.

Explanations: Sherif's realistic group conflict (competition over scarce resources, reduced by superordinate goals), Burton's human needs theory (denial of security, identity and recognition) and Deutsch's cooperation-competition theory (competitive orientations escalate conflict).

Methods of resolution:

• Negotiation: direct, interest-based bargaining toward an integrative solution.
• Mediation and conciliation: a neutral third party facilitates communication. Lok Adalats and mediation centres are Indian examples.
• Arbitration and adjudication: binding decisions where the parties agree or the law requires.
• Intergroup contact and superordinate goals, with dialogue and truth-telling, to rebuild trust.
• Gandhian approach: non-violent resistance (satyagraha) and constructive work that address the underlying relationship and structural injustice.
• Addressing root causes: fair access to resources, representation and justice.

(b) Online learning after COVID-19: advantages and disadvantages Advantages:

• Wider access to content and teachers, through platforms such as DIKSHA, SWAYAM and recorded lectures.
• Flexibility and self-paced learning, which builds self-regulated learning skills (Zimmerman).
• Continuity of learning in emergencies, and lower travel cost and time.
• Personalised and adaptive resources, and development of digital skills.

Disadvantages:

• Digital divide: unequal access to devices, connectivity and a quiet space across rural-urban, income and gender lines, so poorer and female students were excluded more.
• Cognitive and attention costs: screen fatigue, split attention and low engagement (cognitive load theory).
• Socio-emotional costs: isolation, loss of peer interaction and teacher feedback, and rising anxiety and stress.
• Learning loss: ASER surveys of 2021 and 2022 showed declines in foundational reading and arithmetic, especially among younger and poorer children.
• Reduced physical activity and limited practical work.

A blended model works best, with school-based teaching as the core.

(c) Early identification and early intervention for children with intellectual disability Need for early identification:

• The first six years are a period of rapid brain development and plasticity, so stimulation has the greatest effect.
• Early diagnosis reduces secondary delays and behaviour problems, and improves adaptive functioning and later independence.
• It allows treatment of correctable causes (for example hypothyroidism, hearing and vision problems, and nutritional deficiencies).
• It gives families early guidance and reduces stress.

Early intervention strategies:

• Screening: developmental checklists and tools (Denver, INCLEN Diagnostic Tools for Intellectual Disability) through Anganwadi, ICDS and primary health services, with referral to District Early Intervention Centres.
• Home-based stimulation and parent training: Portage-type programmes using task analysis, reinforcement and daily-living skills.
• Therapies: speech, occupational and physiotherapy, and behavioural and adaptive-skills training.
• Individualised plans for school readiness and inclusive education.
• Policy support: the RPwD Act, 2016 and National Trust schemes such as Disha (early intervention) and Niramaya (health insurance).
• Family counselling and community-based rehabilitation.