(a) Explain the impact of successive Land Acquisition Acts on tribal social organization. (20 marks) (b) Discuss the problems…

(a) Impact of Successive Land Acquisition Acts on Tribal Social Organization Tribal social organisation rested on community ownership of land, with clan and village control, as in the khuntkatti land of the Munda. Colonial law began its erosion: the Land Acquisition Act, 1894 gave the state power of eminent domain for any "public purpose", compensated only cash at market value, and required neither consent nor rehabilitation. Along with forest laws that curtailed customary use, it turned community land into state or individual property. Tribal resistance, such as the Santhal Hool (1855), reflected land loss, and protective laws such as the Chota Nagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 and Scheduled Area transfer regulations (e.g., Odisha, 1956) tried to check alienation.

After independence the 1894 Act was used for dams, mines and industry. Estimates, such as Walter Fernandes', suggest that tribals, about 8% of the population, formed around 40% of those displaced. Alienation (transfer to non-tribals through debt or fraud) differs from displacement (physical removal by projects), but both break the link to land.

Social consequences: clan and village communities were scattered, village councils and customary authority weakened, kin networks and dormitory institutions broke, and collective ownership gave way to individual titles, which excluded women and the landless. Dispersal led to migration, wage labour and cultural loss, including sacred sites.

Corrective laws: PESA, 1996 requires Gram Sabha consultation before acquisition in Scheduled Areas; the Supreme Court in Samatha (1997) barred transfer of tribal land to non-tribals and private mining; the Forest Rights Act, 2006 recognised rights; and the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 (LARR) added social impact assessment, consent (70-80% for private and PPP projects) and R&R. The Niyamgiri decision (2013) affirmed Gram Sabha rights. Implementation remains weak.

(b) Problems in Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Displaced Tribals Large dams (Hirakud, Sardar Sarovar, Polavaram), mines, power plants and SEZs have displaced millions, with tribals bearing a disproportionate share.

Problems: compensation is paid mainly in cash, and "land for land" is rare, as most tribals lack formal title, especially forest dwellers; the gap between compensation and real rehabilitation is wide, with delays and cash soon spent. Common property and forest resources, central to livelihood, are uncompensated. Resettlement sites are often poor, distant, and lack water, schools and health, and resettlement away from the home area (ex-situ) breaks kinship and clan ties, while in-situ rehabilitation is rare. Cultural dislocation follows loss of sacred sites and communal institutions, with food insecurity, indebtedness and health decline, including loss of women's resources. Participation and consent are weak, and non-titled families get excluded from the lists.

Policy: the National Policy on Rehabilitation and Resettlement, 2007 was replaced in effect by LARR, 2013, with its Second Schedule on entitlements, and provision for the Social Impact Assessment and R&R authority. Narmada Bachao Andolan (from 1985) contested Sardar Sarovar through protests and the Supreme Court (2000, upholding the dam with R&R conditions).

Improvement requires land-for-land, benefit-sharing, free Gram Sabha consent and tribal-specific R&R plans.

(c) NGO Interventions for Empowering Tribal Women Tribal women enjoy relatively high labour participation and mobility, but face poverty, land and inheritance gaps, health problems, and witch-hunting. NGOs address these through several routes.

Economic: PRADAN organises women's Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Jharkhand, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh, with savings, credit and tasar silk and agriculture-based livelihoods; Seva Mandir (Udaipur) and the Foundation for Ecological Security work with women in forest and common-resource management. Skill training and collectives for minor forest produce, handicrafts and processing raise incomes.

Social and legal: awareness and legal aid against witch-hunting (as by the Free Legal Aid Committee in Jharkhand), campaigns against alcohol and violence, and training in rights.

Health and education: nutrition and ASHA-type health education, adult literacy and girls' schooling.

Political: training of women panchayat leaders, as in PESA areas.

Government-NGO partnerships under the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) and Van Dhan centres extend reach.

Impact: higher income and decision-making, and savings; but challenges include dependence on donors, limited reach in remote areas, patriarchal customs, weak market linkages and sustainability.