(a) Discuss the recent changes brought about in institutional frameworks of agriculture in India. Evaluate its impact on the…

(a) Institutional changes in agriculture and their impact

Recent years witnessed decisive institutional shifts aimed at liberalising agricultural markets and modernising supply chains. Key interventions include the scheme for 10,000 Farmer Producer Organisations (2020, target reached in 2025), integration of over 1,400 mandis through the electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM), direct income support of ₹6,000 a year via PM-KISAN, the ₹1 lakh crore Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (2020), the Digital Agriculture Mission with AgriStack farmer registries (2024), and the Model Contract Farming Act, 2018. Although the three farm laws of 2020 were repealed following protracted protests, they catalysed state-level marketing reforms and highlighted the demand for a statutory Minimum Support Price (MSP).

Evaluating these changes against the dual standards of economic efficiency and socio-spatial equity reveals mixed outcomes. On efficiency, digital platforms like e-NAM and aggregation via FPOs have marginally reduced intermediary margins and improved price discovery. However, private infrastructure investment remains sluggish, and contract farming arrangements often manifest power asymmetries against smallholders. On equity, market integration has inadvertently driven informalization, as formal APMC protections weaken without robust alternatives. Non-institutional debt cycles persist among small and marginal farmers who comprise 86% of holdings (Agriculture Census 2015–16). Furthermore, regional disparities have deepened: while the Green Revolution belt of Punjab and Haryana resisted deregulation to protect public procurement, subsistence-dominated agrarian economies in Eastern and North-Eastern India continue to suffer from underdeveloped marketing infrastructure and negligible institutional procurement.

(b) Water-sharing disputes in North-West India

Water sharing disputes among the riparian states of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan remain protracted due to conflicting legal claims, electoral politics, and ecological stress. The focal flashpoint is the Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL) canal, designed to operationalize the 1981 allocation of surplus Ravi-Beas waters (Punjab 4.22 MAF, Haryana 3.5 MAF, Rajasthan 8.6 MAF), reaffirmed by the 1985 Rajiv-Longowal Accord. Punjab asserts the riparian principle, citing dynamic hydrological changes, acute groundwater depletion, and declining river discharges to justify its 2004 Termination of Agreements Act, which the Supreme Court held unconstitutional in a 2016 Presidential reference. Conversely, non-riparian Haryana and Rajasthan argue on prior appropriation principles and equitable apportionment, relying on Supreme Court decrees that mandate the completion of the SYL canal.

These frictions are aggravated by limitations of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956: the Ravi-Beas (Eradi) Tribunal, set up in 1986, reported in 1987, but its award has still not been notified. The Yamuna waters are shared among five states under a 1994 MoU, with recurring summer friction between Haryana and Delhi. Geopolitically, internal disputes intersect with the Indus Waters Treaty, as domestic delays hinder optimal utilization of eastern river allocations, a question sharpened after India placed the treaty in abeyance in April 2025.

[Diagram: sketch map of the Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna basins with Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Delhi, the SYL canal alignment and the Indira Gandhi canal] The federal dimension exposes a constitutional tension: water is a State subject under Entry 17 (List II), yet subject to Union regulation of inter-state rivers under Entry 56 (List I). Climate-induced scarcity, receding Himalayan glaciers, and erratic monsoons have intensified this zero-sum conflict across the basin.

(c) Soils as reflections of structure and process

Indian soils distinctly manifest the Davisian paradigm of structure (lithology) and process (pedogenesis acting over time).

Structure governs mineral composition and parent material. The peninsular Black Cotton Soils (Regur) directly reflect their Deccan Trap basaltic structure, rich in montmorillonite clay, iron, and calcium. The extensive Alluvial Soils mirror the depositional structural sink of the Indo-Gangetic foreland basin, filled with Himalayan sediments. Laterite soils correlate with elevated, crystalline gneissic surfaces and basaltic capping on the Western Ghats and Chota Nagpur plateau, where stable structural relief allows advanced desilication.

Pedogenic processes determine soil maturity and profiles across climato-vegetational regimes. Zonal soils illustrate climatic dominance: the Aridisols of Rajasthan display calcification and mechanical weathering under arid conditions, while mountain Podzols reflect mor-humus leaching under humid temperate forests. Azonal soils, such as Khadar (recent riverine alluvium) and glacial scree, demonstrate the dominance of continuous erosional and depositional processes that prevent horizon differentiation. Intrazonal soils, such as the saline-alkali soils (Usar/Kallar) of canal-irrigated tracts in Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, illustrate local process anomalies driven by capillary action and impeded drainage.