Geology

UPSC Geology 2024 — Paper II

All 8 questions from UPSC Civil Services Mains Geology 2024 Paper II (400 marks total). Every stem reproduced in full, with directive-word analysis, marks, word limits, and answer-approach pointers.

8Questions
400Total marks
2024Year
Paper IIPaper

Topics covered

Crystallography, mineralogy and petrology (1)Crystallography and mineralogy (1)Metamorphism and igneous petrology (1)Sedimentary petrology and facies analysis (1)Economic geology and geochemistry (1)Mineral economics and magmatic deposits (1)Mining geology and mineral processing (1)Geochemistry and environmental geology (1)

A

Q1
50M 150w Compulsory explain Crystallography, mineralogy and petrology

Answer the following questions in about 150 words each. (a) What are the different types of rotational axes of symmetry present in a crystal ? What are the different types of twinning observed in quartz ? (10 marks) (b) How does one define "Double refraction" and "Birefringence" of an anisotropic mineral ? Write with the help of suitable sketches. (10 marks) (c) Show diagrammatically the characteristics of binary eutectic system under 1 atmosphere (1 atm pressure). How does one explain the formation of porphyritic basic rock with phenocryst of plagioclase in a groundmass with plagioclase and clinopyroxene with the help of a suitable binary eutectic system ? (10 marks) (d) Explain the processes involved in magmatic differentiation. (10 marks) (e) With the help of suitable diagrams, describe Folk's graphic classification of carbonate rocks. (10 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित में से प्रत्येक प्रश्न का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए। (a) किसी क्रिस्टल में मौजूद विभिन्न प्रकार के घूर्णी सममिति अक्ष कौन-से हैं ? स्फटिक (क्वार्ट्ज) में प्रेक्षित विभिन्न प्रकार के यमलन कौन-से हैं ? (10 अंक) (b) एक विषमदैशिक खनिज में "दोहरा अपवर्तन" और "द्विअपवर्तन" को कैसे परिभाषित करते हैं ? समुचित चित्रों की सहायता से लिखिए। (10 अंक) (c) 1 वायुमंडलीय दाब (1 atm प्रेशर) पर द्विअंगी गलनांकांतिक तंत्र की विशेषताओं को आरेखीय रूप से दर्शाइए । प्लेजियोक्लेस तथा क्लाइनोपाइरॉक्सीन युक्त आधात्रिका में, लक्ष्यक्रिस्टलीय प्लेजियोक्लेस धारित पोरफिराइटी अल्प-सिलिका शैल निर्माण को उचित द्विअंगी गलनांकांतिक तंत्र की सहायता से कैसे समझाया जा सकता है ? (10 अंक) (d) मैग्मीय विभेदन में सम्मिलित प्रक्रियाओं की व्याख्या कीजिए। (10 अंक) (e) समुचित चित्रों की सहायता से फोक के कार्बोनेट शैलों के आरेखमय वर्गीकरण का वर्णन कीजिए। (10 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) enumerate: list the items in order > one line each > no commentary | (b) define: precise definition > the distinguishing feature > one example | (c) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (d) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (e) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Precise definitions, accurate diagrams, specific Indian examples, clear causal chains.

  • Proper rotation axes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 with angles; crystallographic restriction excluding 5 and >6
  • Rotoinversion axes (1̄, 2̄ = m, 3̄, 4̄, 6̄)
  • Quartz symmetry: trigonal point group 32 (one 3-fold, three 2-fold axes)
  • Quartz twins: Dauphiné (electrical, 180° about c, forms also by stress/α–β transition), Brazil (optical, right- and left-handed quartz), Japan (contact, c-axes at 84°33′)
  • Double refraction: splitting into O and E rays polarised at right angles
  • Refractive indices nω and nε; uniaxial +/−; biaxial nα, nβ, nγ
  • Birefringence as maximum index difference; examples (calcite ~0.172, quartz ~0.009)
  • Relation to interference colours (retardation = thickness × δ) and isotropic minerals showing none
  • Labelled diagram: liquidus curves, eutectic point, solidus, fields, lever rule
  • Di–An system as model (eutectic ~1274 °C, ~42% An)
  • Crystallisation path of a bulk composition on the anorthite side: plagioclase first, liquid moves to E, then co-crystallisation
  • Porphyritic texture from two-stage cooling (slow then rapid), giving porphyritic basalt/dolerite
  • Fractional crystallisation and Bowen's reaction series
  • Crystal settling/flotation, filter pressing, flow differentiation
  • Liquid immiscibility (silicate–sulphide, silicate–carbonate), gas transfer
  • Assimilation (AFC) and magma mixing; outcome in igneous rock series
  • Three components: allochems, micrite, sparry calcite; four allochem types (intraclasts, ooids, fossils, pellets)
  • Types I (sparry allochemical), II (microcrystalline allochemical), III (micrite), IV (biolithite); dismicrite
  • Rock names: intrasparite, oosparite, biosparite, pelsparite and micrite equivalents
  • Textural spectrum (micrite to rounded biosparite) and its energy significance
Q2
50M describe Crystallography and mineralogy

(a) What are the symmetry elements present in the normal class of an isometric system ? Write the Hermann-Mauguin notation of the normal class of isometric system. Plot the face (hkl) and deduce the form generated by operation of symmetry elements from the face (hkl) on a stereogram of the normal class of isometric system. (15 marks) (b) Draw and describe the structure of mica group of minerals. Describe the chemical composition and optical properties of minerals of mica group. (15 marks) (c) Define polymorphism and discuss different types of polymorphic transitions. What are the different types of polymorphs of SiO₂ and Al₂SiO₅ ? (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) घनीय समुदाय के सामान्य वर्ग में विद्यमान सममिति तत्व क्या होते हैं ? घनीय समुदाय के सामान्य वर्ग के हरमन-मौगुइन संकेतन को लिखिए । घनीय समुदाय के सामान्य वर्ग के फलक (hkl) को त्रिविम चित्र में दर्शाइए तथा सममिति तत्वों से बनने वाली आकृति की व्युत्पत्ति कीजिए । (15 अंक) (b) अभ्रक समुदाय के खनिजों की संरचना का सचित्र वर्णन कीजिए । अभ्रक समुदाय के खनिजों का रासायनिक संयटन और प्रकाशिक गुणधर्मों का वर्णन कीजिए । (15 अंक) (c) बहुरूपता को परिभाषित कीजिए और विभिन्न प्रकार के बहुरूपीय संक्रमणों की चर्चा कीजिए । SiO₂ और Al₂SiO₅ के विभिन्न प्रकार के बहुरूप क्या हैं ? (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (c) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Accurate symmetry elements, clear stereogram, detailed mica structure, comprehensive polymorphism discussion.

  • Symmetry: 3A4, 4A3, 6A2, 9 mirror planes (3 axial + 6 diagonal), centre — 23 elements
  • H–M symbol 4/m 3̄ 2/m (m3̄m)
  • Stereogram: mirror traces, axis symbols, general pole in the fundamental triangle, generation of 48 poles
  • Form: hexoctahedron {hkl}; special forms (cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, trisoctahedron, trapezohedron, tetrahexahedron)
  • 2:1 T-O-T layer, tetrahedral sheets with Al substituting for Si, octahedral sheet, K interlayer; perfect {001} cleavage
  • Di- vs trioctahedral micas with formulae (muscovite, paragonite, biotite, phlogopite, lepidolite)
  • Optics: biaxial negative, small 2V, high birefringence, bird's-eye extinction, pleochroism and haloes in biotite
  • Occurrence and uses; Indian mica belts (Koderma–Giridih, Nellore, Bhilwara)
  • Definition; reconstructive, displacive, order–disorder transitions with examples
  • Enantiotropic vs monotropic behaviour
  • SiO2: α/β quartz (573 °C), tridymite (~870 °C), cristobalite (~1470 °C), coesite, stishovite; moganite optional
  • Al2SiO5: kyanite, andalusite, sillimanite; triple point ~500 °C, ~3.8 kbar (Holdaway) and use as metamorphic indicators
Q3
50M discuss Metamorphism and igneous petrology

(a) Describe the mineral reactions in prograde metamorphism of argillaceous sedimentary rocks with appropriate diagrams. (15 marks) (b) Write the mineralogy and texture of basalt. How does basaltic magma form in deep earth ? (15 marks) (c) Discuss the process of magma generation in the Earth's interior and its causes. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) मृण्मय अवसादी शैलों के प्रोग्रेड कार्यान्तरण में खनिज अभिक्रियाओं का उपयुक्त चित्रों सहित वर्णन कीजिए । (15 अंक) (b) बेसाल्ट की खनिजीकी व गठन पर प्रकाश डालिए । भूगर्भ में बेसाल्टिक मैग्मा किस प्रकार बनता है ? (15 अंक) (c) पृथ्वी के आन्तरिक भाग में मैग्मा की उत्पत्ति की प्रक्रिया और इसके कारणों पर चर्चा कीजिए । (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Precise mineral reactions, labelled diagrams, specific Indian examples, clear causal chains.

  • Barrovian zone sequence: chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite with approximate P–T
  • Balanced/qualitative reactions for each isograd, including kyanite → sillimanite and muscovite + quartz → sillimanite + K-feldspar + H2O
  • Buchan (low-P) sequence with andalusite and cordierite
  • Diagrams: P–T grid with isograds/Al2SiO5 triple point and AFM projections
  • Mineralogy: calcic plagioclase, augite, ± olivine, Fe–Ti oxides, glass; tholeiitic vs alkali basalt
  • Textures: ophitic, subophitic, intergranular, intersertal, porphyritic, vesicular/amygdaloidal
  • Genesis: partial melting of mantle peridotite by decompression (ridges, plumes); degree and depth of melting control tholeiite vs alkali basalt
  • Indian example: Deccan Traps and Réunion plume
  • Geotherm vs solidus: melting needs the geotherm to cross the solidus
  • Decompression melting (ridges, plumes, rifts)
  • Flux melting at subduction zones (H2O, CO2 lowering solidus)
  • Heat transfer/crustal anatexis; control of degree of melting and source on magma type
Q4
50M describe Sedimentary petrology and facies analysis

(a) Discuss the various factors that control the composition of sandstone. (15 marks) (b) What do you understand by facies model ? Describe the facies and facies association produced in a fluvial environment. (15 marks) (c) What are heavy minerals ? Describe methods of their separation and comment on the utility of heavy mineral suite in provenance interpretation. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) बालुकाश्म के संघटन को नियंत्रित करने वाले विभिन्न कारकों पर चर्चा कीजिए। (15 अंक) (b) संलक्षणी मॉडल से आप क्या समझते हैं ? नदीय पर्यावरण में उत्पन्न संलक्षणी व संलक्षणी संयोजन का वर्णन कीजिए। (15 अंक) (c) भारी खनिज क्या होते हैं ? उनके पृथक्करण की विधियों का वर्णन कीजिए तथा उद्गम क्षेत्र की व्याख्या में भारी खनिज संजाती की उपयोगिता पर प्रकाश डालिए। (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (c) comment: context > arguments both sides > judgment > close Full marks: Precise petrographic terms, labelled diagrams, specific Indian examples, clear causal chains

  • Provenance/source rock lithology and tectonic setting (Dickinson QFL fields)
  • Climate and relief controlling chemical vs mechanical weathering
  • Transport distance, sorting, abrasion and depositional environment; recycling
  • Diagenesis altering composition (dissolution, cementation, albitisation); compositional maturity
  • Definition of facies, facies association and facies model (norm, framework, predictor, basis for interpretation)
  • Meandering model: channel lag, point-bar cross-bedded sands, levee/crevasse splay, floodplain muds with palaeosols; fining-upward cycles
  • Braided model: gravelly bars, trough cross-bedding, multistorey sheet sands, little mud
  • Lithofacies codes and architectural elements (Miall), Walther's law
  • Definition: accessory grains with SG > ~2.85–2.9
  • Separation: sieving, panning/tabling, heavy liquids (bromoform, tetrabromoethane, sodium polytungstate), centrifuge, magnetic (Frantz) separation, mounting
  • Provenance: diagnostic suites for granitic, metamorphic, mafic/ultramafic sources; ZTR index; stability series (Goldich/Pettijohn)
  • Applications: correlation, unroofing history, placer exploration (Chavara, Manavalakurichi)

B

Q5
50M 150w Compulsory discuss Economic geology and geochemistry

Answer the following questions in about 150 words each. (a) Give an account of the geology and the process of formation of aluminium mineral deposits of India. (10 marks) (b) What are the Iron-Titanium oxides associated with igneous rocks ? Add an account of their mineral associations and textures. (10 marks) (c) What is the difference between prospecting and exploration ? Explain the various techniques of sampling. (10 marks) (d) Discuss briefly about the abundance of elements in the Universe. State Oddo-Harkins rule with examples. (10 marks) (e) Describe the natural hazards due to earthquakes. Discuss the mitigation aspects of earthquake hazards. (10 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित में से प्रत्येक प्रश्न का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए। (a) भारत में पाए जाने वाले ऐलुमिनियम खनिज निक्षेपों का भूविज्ञान एवं उनके बनने के प्रक्रम का विवरण दीजिए। (10 अंक) (b) आग्नेय शैलों से साहचर्य करने वाले लोह-टाइटेनियम ऑक्साइड क्या हैं ? उनके खनिज संबंध एवं गठन का विवरण दीजिए। (10 अंक) (c) पूर्वेक्षण व गवेषण में क्या अंतर है ? नमूना लेने की विभिन्न क्रियाविधियों की व्याख्या कीजिए। (10 अंक) (d) ब्रह्मांड में तत्वों की प्रचुरता की संक्षिप्त चर्चा कीजिए। ऑडो-हार्किन्स नियम का उदाहरणों सहित उल्लेख कीजिए। (10 अंक) (e) भूकंपीय प्राकृतिक आपदाओं का वर्णन कीजिए। भूकंपों से होने वाली आपदाओं के न्यूनीकरण पहलुओं पर चर्चा कीजिए। (10 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) account for: state the phenomenon > the causes in order of weight > conclusion | (b) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (c) compare: paired headings or point-wise contrast > key differences > significance > conclusion | (d) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (e) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Precise Indian examples, correct processes, named formations, clear distinctions

  • Minerals: gibbsite (dominant in Indian laterites), boehmite, diaspore
  • Formation: lateritisation — prolonged tropical weathering, desilication, leaching of alkalis; role of relief, drainage and water table; karst bauxite
  • Indian geology: East Coast (khondalite-hosted, Panchpatmali–Koraput), Deccan basalt cappings (Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP–Amarkantak), Chhotanagpur (Lohardaga), Jammu karst (diaspore)
  • Grade requirements and Bayer suitability
  • Minerals: magnetite–ulvöspinel (titanomagnetite) and ilmenite–hematite solid solutions
  • Associations: gabbro–anorthosite complexes and layered intrusions with plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, apatite; V-bearing magnetite
  • Textures: cumulate magnetitite layers, oxy-exsolution trellis/sandwich/composite ilmenite lamellae, ulvöspinel cloth texture, martitisation
  • Significance: geothermometry/oxybarometry, palaeomagnetism; Indian occurrences (Mayurbhanj, Nuggihalli–Masanikere)
  • Prospecting: regional search for targets; exploration: detailed evaluation and resource estimation
  • UNFC stages G4–G1
  • Sampling methods: grab, chip, channel, pit/trench, bulk, drill core and cuttings, grade-control
  • Sample reduction and QA/QC (splitting, crushing, blanks, duplicates, standards), representativeness and bias
  • H and He dominance from Big Bang nucleosynthesis; heavier elements by stellar nucleosynthesis
  • Features: exponential decrease with Z, Li–Be–B depletion, iron peak
  • Oddo–Harkins rule: even-Z elements more abundant than odd-Z neighbours; nuclear stability explanation
  • Examples (O > N, F; Si > Al, P; Fe > Mn, Co; saw-tooth REE pattern and chondrite normalisation)
  • Primary: ground shaking, surface rupture; secondary: liquefaction, landslides, tsunami, fire
  • Mitigation: hazard zoning and microzonation, codes (IS 1893, IS 4326, IS 13920), retrofitting
  • Preparedness: early warning (INCOIS tsunami, regional EEW pilots), drills, awareness
  • Institutions and policy: NDMA guidelines, land-use regulation; Indian examples (Bhuj 2001, Sikkim 2011)
Q6
50M explain Mineral economics and magmatic deposits

(a) Explain the various peculiarities inherent in the mineral industry. (15 marks) (b) What is mineral conservation ? Explain how it can be achieved. (15 marks) (c) Describe the classification of magmatic deposits and add a note on "late magmatic deposits". (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) खनिज उद्योग की अन्तर्निहित विभिन्न विशेषताओं की व्याख्या कीजिए। (15 अंक) (b) खनिज संरक्षण क्या है ? इसको प्राप्त करने के उपायों की व्याख्या कीजिए। (15 अंक) (c) मैग्मीय निक्षेपों का वर्गीकरण कीजिए तथा "पश्च मैग्मीय निक्षेप" पर टिप्पणी लिखिए। (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Comprehensive coverage of all points with specific examples and clear diagrams.

  • Exhaustible/wasting asset; non-renewability and depletion
  • High-risk exploration, long gestation, capital intensity
  • Fixed location, uneven distribution, grade decline over time, bulk vs value and transport costs
  • Market features: price volatility, inelasticity, cyclicality, strategic/geopolitical importance (critical minerals), externalities and social issues
  • Definition: wise use to maximise benefit and extend life for future generations
  • Technical: scientific mining, reduced dilution/losses, beneficiation of low grades, by-product recovery
  • Substitution, recycling, efficient use
  • Policy and institutions: MMDR Act, MCDR 2017, IBM, star rating, mine closure, sustainable development framework
  • Bateman's classification: early magmatic (disseminated, segregation, injection) vs late magmatic
  • Late magmatic types: residual liquid segregation and injection, immiscible liquid segregation and injection
  • Examples: Fe–Ti–V magnetite (Bushveld, Mayurbhanj), immiscible sulphides (Sudbury, Norilsk), Kiruna-type (debated)
  • Genesis: fractional crystallisation, volatile enrichment, liquid immiscibility, filter pressing; distinction from hydrothermal
Q7
50M enumerate Mining geology and mineral processing

(a) (i) What is the difference between a sample and a specimen ? (5 marks) (ii) Describe the classification of mineral reserves. (5 marks) (iii) What are the different marine mineral resources ? (5 marks) (b) What is the principle and nature of construction of Wilfley Table ? Which mineral product is separated in tabling ? (15 marks) (c) What do you know about 'Neyveli Lignite Mine' ? Enumerate the methodology of mining and machinery under use in this mine, with neat sketches. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) (i) नमूना (सैंपल) व प्रतिदर्श (स्पेसिमेन) में क्या अंतर है ? (5 अंक) (ii) खनिज भंडार के वर्गीकरण का वर्णन कीजिए। (5 अंक) (iii) विभिन्न समुद्री खनिज सम्पदाएँ क्या हैं ? (5 अंक) (b) विल्फले टेबल के निर्माण का सिद्धान्त व प्रकृति क्या है ? टेबलिंग विधि में किस खनिज उत्पाद को अलग किया जाता है ? (15 अंक) (c) 'नेयवेली लिग्नाइट खान' के बारे में आप क्या जानते हैं ? इस खदान में खनन विधि एवं उपयोग होने वाली मशीनों का साफ चित्रों सहित वर्णन कीजिए। (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a(i)) compare: paired headings or point-wise contrast > key differences > significance > conclusion | (a(ii)) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (a(iii)) enumerate: list the items in order > one line each > no commentary | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Precise definitions, clear diagrams, specific Indian examples, and correct technical terminology.

  • Sample: representative portion for assay/testing by a defined method
  • Specimen: single piece chosen for a feature, for identification/display/study
  • Representativeness vs illustrative purpose
  • Examples (channel sample vs hand specimen)
  • Older scheme: proved, probable, possible
  • UNFC three axes (E, F, G) with levels and codes
  • Reserves (111, 121, 122) vs remaining resources (211–334)
  • Indian adoption through the MEMC Rules, 2015; JORC/CRIRSCO parallel
  • Beach/shelf placers and construction materials
  • Polymetallic nodules, seafloor massive sulphides, cobalt crusts
  • Phosphorites, gas hydrates, offshore hydrocarbons, seawater salts
  • Indian context: CIOB pioneer area, ISA contracts, Deep Ocean Mission, offshore block auction
  • Principle: differential settling in flowing film, stratification, asymmetric reciprocating motion
  • Construction: riffled deck, transverse tilt, head motion (stroke and frequency), feed and wash-water launders
  • Products: concentrate, middlings, tailings, slimes; feed size limits
  • Minerals concentrated: cassiterite, wolframite, chromite, gold, ilmenite, zircon, monazite; coal cleaning
  • Location, operator (NLC India), geology (Mio-Pliocene seam, overburden thickness)
  • Artesian aquifer below the seam and depressurisation pumping
  • Opencast BWE–conveyor–spreader continuous method, internal dumping, stacker-reclaimers, mine-mouth power
  • Machinery list with roles; neat sketches
Q8
50M discuss Geochemistry and environmental geology

(a) What are the different layers in the Earth's interior ? How is the layered structure of the Earth determined ? Name two most abundant elements of each layer of the Earth. (15 marks) (b) Define major, minor and trace elements. Write briefly about the characteristics of lithophile, chalcophile, siderophile and atmophile elements with examples. Why are trace elements considered more efficient than major elements in understanding the Earth's processes ? (15 marks) (c) Discuss in detail the pollution of surface water and groundwater due to mining activities. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) पृथ्वी की विभिन्न आंतरिक परतें कौन-सी हैं ? पृथ्वी की परतीय आंतरिक संरचना कैसे ज्ञात की जाती है ? पृथ्वी की प्रत्येक परत के दो सबसे प्रचुर तत्वों के नाम बताइए । (15 अंक) (b) मुख्य, गौण तथा सूक्ष्मात्रिक तत्वों की परिभाषा दीजिए । लिथोफाइल, चाल्कोफाइल, साइडरोफाइल व एट्मोफाइल तत्वों की विशेषताओं को उदाहरणों सहित संक्षेप में लिखिए । सूक्ष्मात्रिक तत्व, भूप्रक्रम को समझने में मुख्य तत्वों से ज्यादा प्रभावी क्यों माने जाते हैं ? (15 अंक) (c) खनन गतिविधियों के कारण भूपृष्ठ जल एवं भौमजल के प्रदूषण पर सविस्तार चर्चा कीजिए । (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (b) write short notes: define > 3-4 key features > one example > one-line significance | (c) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Precise definitions, correct geochemical groups, detailed AMD mechanism, named Indian examples, clear diagrams.

  • Layers: crust (continental/oceanic), mantle (upper/transition/lower), outer core (liquid), inner core (solid) with depths
  • Methods: seismic velocities, reflection/refraction at Moho, Gutenberg, Lehmann discontinuities, shadow zones; supporting evidence (density, meteorites, experiments, magnetism)
  • Physical properties: density, pressure, temperature and state
  • Abundant elements: crust O, Si; mantle O, Mg (Si close); core Fe, Ni (light elements in outer core)
  • Thresholds: major >1 wt%, minor 0.1–1 wt%, trace <0.1 wt% (ppm level)
  • Lithophile, chalcophile, siderophile, atmophile with examples and host phases
  • Why trace elements: large partition-coefficient contrasts, sensitivity to melting and crystallisation, source signatures, isotopic tracers
  • Tools: compatible/incompatible behaviour, REE patterns, spider and discrimination diagrams
  • Acid mine drainage chemistry with reactions and metal mobilisation
  • Surface-water effects: sediment, turbidity, tailings failures, metals, salinity
  • Groundwater effects: seepage from dumps and tailings, dewatering, aquifer disruption, pit lakes, radionuclides
  • Indian examples and mitigation (treatment, passive systems, liners, monitoring, closure, reuse of mine water)

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