Mathematics

UPSC Mathematics 2021 — Paper II

All 8 questions from UPSC Civil Services Mains Mathematics 2021 Paper II (400 marks total). Every stem reproduced in full, with directive-word analysis, marks, word limits, and answer-approach pointers.

8Questions
400Total marks
2021Year
Paper IIPaper

Topics covered

Number theory, analysis, complex analysis, linear programming (1)Calculus, field theory, complex analysis (1)Complex analysis, optimization and Lagrange multipliers (1)Group theory, complex integration and linear programming (1)PDE, numerical methods, Boolean algebra, classical mechanics, fluid dynamics (1)Wave equation, Boolean algebra, Lagrangian mechanics (1)Partial differential equations, numerical methods, fluid dynamics (1)Charpit's method, interpolation, complex potential (1)

A

Q1
50M Compulsory solve Number theory, analysis, complex analysis, linear programming

(a) Let m₁, m₂, …, mₖ be positive integers and d > 0 the greatest common divisor of m₁, m₂, …, mₖ. Show that there exist integers x₁, x₂, …, xₖ such that d = x_1m₁ + x_2m₂ + … + x_kmₖ (10 marks) (b) Test the uniform convergence of the series x⁴ + (x⁴)/(1+x⁴) + (x⁴)/((1+x⁴)²) + (x⁴)/((1+x⁴)³) + … on [0, 1]. (10 marks) (c) If a function f is monotonic in the interval [a, b], then prove that f is Riemann integrable in [a, b]. (10 marks) (d) Let c : [0, 1] → C be the curve, where c(t) = e⁴π it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1. Evaluate the contour integraldisplaystyle∫_c dz/(2z² - 5z + 2). (10 marks) (e) A department of a company has five employees with five jobs to be performed. The time (in hours) that each man takes to perform each job is given in the effectiveness matrix. Assign all the jobs to these five employees to minimize the total processing time: Employees I II III IV V A 10 5 13 15 16 B 3 9 18 13 6 Jobs C 10 7 2 2 2 D 7 11 9 7 12 E 7 9 10 4 12 (10 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) मान लीजिए कि m₁, m₂, …, mₖ धनात्मक पूर्णांक हैं तथा d > 0, m₁, m₂, …, mₖ का महत्तम समापवर्तक है। दर्शाइए कि ऐसे पूर्णांक x₁, x₂, …, xₖ अस्तित्व में हैं ताकि d = x_1m₁ + x_2m₂ + … + x_kmₖ (10 अंक) (b) श्रेणी x⁴ + (x⁴)/(1+x⁴) + (x⁴)/((1+x⁴)²) + (x⁴)/((1+x⁴)³) + … के [0, 1] पर एकसमान अभिसरण की जाँच कीजिए। (10 अंक) (c) यदि एक फलन f, अन्तराल [a, b] में एकदिशे है, तब सिद्ध कीजिए कि f, [a, b] में रीमान समाकलनीय है। (10 अंक) (d) मान लीजिए कि c : [0, 1] → C, c(t) = e⁴π it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 के द्वारा परिभाषित एक वक्र है। कन्टूर समाकल ∫_c dz/(2z² - 5z + 2) का मान निकालिए। (10 अंक) (e) एक कम्पनी के एक विभाग के पाँच कर्मचारियों को पाँच कार्य सम्पन्न करने हैं। जितना समय (घंटों में) एक व्यक्ति एक कार्य को सम्पन्न करने के लिए लेता है, वह प्रभाविता आव्यूह में दिया गया है। इन पाँच कर्मचारियों को इन सभी कार्यों को इस तरह निर्धारित कीजिए जिससे कि समस्त कार्य सम्पन्न करने का समय न्यूनतम हो : कर्मचारी | | I | II | III | IV | V | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | A | 10 | 5 | 13 | 15 | 16 | | B | 3 | 9 | 18 | 13 | 6 | | C | 10 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | D | 7 | 11 | 9 | 7 | 12 | | E | 7 | 9 | 10 | 4 | 12 | कार्य (10 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion | (b) evaluate: criteria > evidence > balanced judgment | (c) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion | (d) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (e) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation Full marks: Rigorous proofs, correct calculations, clear steps, no errors.

  • Bézout identity for two integers with justification
  • Induction on k using gcd(m₁..mₖ) = gcd(g, mₖ)
  • Explicit coefficients xᵢ = ryᵢ, xₖ = s
  • Sum the geometric series to get Sₙ = 1 + x⁴ − (1 + x⁴)⁻ⁿ
  • Identify the pointwise limit S(0) = 0, S(x) = 1 + x⁴ for x > 0
  • Show sup|Sₙ − S| = 1 or the discontinuity of S, so not uniform
  • Boundedness and inf/sup on each subinterval
  • Bound U − L by ‖P‖[f(b) − f(a)]
  • Apply Riemann's criterion and handle the decreasing case
  • Factorise and locate poles 1/2 and 2
  • Recognise winding number 2 about 1/2 and 0 about 2
  • Residue −1/3 and result −4πi/3
  • Row reduction and zero cover with fewer than 5 lines
  • Second reduction using the smallest uncovered element 2
  • Assignment A–II, B–I, C–V, D–III, E–IV with total 23
Q2
50M solve Calculus, field theory, complex analysis

(a) Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = x³ - 9x² + 26x - 24 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. (15 marks) (b) Let F be a field and f(x) ∈ F[x] a polynomial of degree > 0 over F. Show that there is a field F' and an imbedding q : F → F' s.t. the polynomial f^q ∈ F'[x] has a root in F', where f^q is obtained by replacing each coefficient a of f by q(a). (15 marks) (c) Find the Laurent series expansion of f(z) = (z² - z + 1)/[z(z² - 3z + 2)] in the powers of (z+1) in the region |z+1| > 3. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) f(x) = x³ - 9x² + 26x - 24 का, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 के लिए, अधिकतम तथा न्यूनतम मान निकालिए। (15 अंक) (b) मान लीजिए कि F एक क्षेत्र है तथा f(x) ∈ F[x], क्षेत्र F के ऊपर घात > 0 का एक बहुपद है। दर्शाइए कि एक क्षेत्र F' तथा एक अंतःस्थापन q : F → F' इस प्रकार से अस्तित्व में है कि बहुपद f^q ∈ F'[x] का एक मूल F' में है, जहाँ f^q, f के प्रत्येक गुणांक a को q(a) द्वारा प्रतिस्थापित करने से प्राप्त होता है। (15 अंक) (c) क्षेत्र |z+1| > 3 में f(z) = (z² - z + 1)/[z(z² - 3z + 2)] का लॉरें श्रेणी प्रसार, (z+1) की घातों में ज्ञात कीजिए। (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (b) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion | (c) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check Full marks: Rigorous step-by-step derivation with all justifications and checks.

  • Compute f′ and locate its zeros (3 ± √3/3, outside [0,1])
  • Conclude f is strictly increasing on [0,1]
  • Minimum −24 at 0 and maximum −6 at 1
  • Take an irreducible factor p and the field F′ = F[x]/(p)
  • Show q is an injective homomorphism (imbedding)
  • Show α = x + (p) is a root of pᵠ and hence of fᵠ
  • Partial fractions 1/(2z) − 1/(z−1) + 3/[2(z−2)]
  • Shift w = z + 1 and expand each term in 1/w for |w| > 3
  • Combine to the general term [(1+3ᵏ)/2 − 2ᵏ⁻¹]/(z+1)ᵏ
Q3
50M prove Complex analysis, optimization and Lagrange multipliers

(a) Let f be an entire function whose Taylor series expansion with centre z = 0 has infinitely many terms. Show that z = 0 is an essential singularity of f(1/z). (15 marks) (b) Find the stationary values of x² + y² + z² subject to the conditions ax² + by² + cz² = 1 and lx + my + nz = 0. Interpret the result geometrically. (20 marks) (c) Convert the following LPP into dual LPP : Minimize Z = x₁ - 3x₂ - 2x₃ subject to 3x₁ - x₂ + 2x₃ ≤ 7 2x₁ - 4x₂ ≥ 12 -4x₁ + 3x₂ + 8x₃ = 10 where x₁, x₂ ≥ 0 and x₃ is unrestricted in sign. (15 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) मान लीजिए कि f एक सर्वत्र वैश्लेषिक फलन है जिसके केन्द्र z = 0 पर टेलर श्रेणी प्रसार में अपरिमित रूप से अनेक पद हैं। दर्शाइए कि f(1/z) की z = 0 एक अनिवार्य विचित्रता है। (15 अंक) (b) शर्तों ax² + by² + cz² = 1 तथा lx + my + nz = 0 से प्रतिबंधित x² + y² + z² के स्थाय (अचर) मान निकालिए। परिणाम की ज्यामितीय व्याख्या कीजिए। (20 अंक) (c) निम्न रैखिक प्रोग्राम समस्या को द्वैती रैखिक प्रोग्राम समस्या में परिवर्तित कीजिए : न्यूनतमीकरण कीजिए Z = x₁ - 3x₂ - 2x₃ बशर्ते कि 3x₁ - x₂ + 2x₃ ≤ 7 2x₁ - 4x₂ ≥ 12 -4x₁ + 3x₂ + 8x₃ = 10 जहाँ x₁, x₂ ≥ 0 तथा x₃ का चिह्न अप्रतिबंधित है। (15 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion | (b) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (c) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check Full marks: Rigorous proofs with all steps shown, correct geometric interpretation, and flawless dual conversion.

  • Write f(1/z) = Σ aₙz⁻ⁿ as the Laurent series
  • Rule out removable singularity and pole using infinitely many non-zero aₙ
  • Conclude essential singularity
  • Lagrange conditions and S = λ
  • Condition l²/(1−λa) + m²/(1−λb) + n²/(1−λc) = 0 giving Rλ² − Qλ + P = 0
  • Geometric meaning: squares of the semi-axes of the central section
  • Put all inequalities in ≥ form and attach y₁, y₂ ≥ 0, y₃ free
  • Dual objective max −7y₁ + 12y₂ + 10y₃
  • Dual constraints: two ≤ constraints and one equation for the free variable
Q4
50M solve Group theory, complex integration and linear programming

(a) Show that there are infinitely many subgroups of the additive group Q of rational numbers. (15 marks) (b) Using contour integration, evaluate the integral ∫₋∞^∞ (sin x dx)/(x(x²+a²)), a > 0. (20 marks) (c) Solve the following linear programming problem using Big M method : Maximize Z = 4x₁ + 5x₂ + 2x₃ subject to 2x₁ + x₂ + x₃ ≥ 10, x₁ + 3x₂ + x₃ ≤ 12, x₁ + x₂ + x₃ = 6, x₁, x₂, x₃ ≥ 0. (15 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) दर्शाइए कि परिमेय संख्याओं के योज्य समूह Q के अपरिमित रूप से अनेक उपसमूह हैं। (15 अंक) (b) कंटूर समाकलन का उपयोग कर समाकलन ∫₋∞^∞ (sin x dx)/(x(x²+a²)), a > 0 का मान ज्ञात कीजिए। (20 अंक) (c) बड़ा M (बिग M) विधि का उपयोग करके निम्नलिखित रैखिक प्रोग्राम समस्या को हल कीजिए : अधिकतमीकरण कीजिए Z = 4x₁ + 5x₂ + 2x₃ बशर्ते कि 2x₁ + x₂ + x₃ ≥ 10,x₁ + 3x₂ + x₃ ≤ 12,x₁ + x₂ + x₃ = 6,x₁, x₂, x₃ ≥ 0। (15 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion | (b) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (c) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation Full marks: Rigorous proofs, correct contour setup, and error-free simplex iterations.

  • Define Hₙ = (1/n!)ℤ and verify it is a subgroup
  • Show Hₙ ⊂ Hₙ₊₁
  • Show the inclusions are strict, so infinitely many distinct subgroups
  • Set up e^(iz)/[z(z²+a²)] with a contour indented at 0
  • Compute residues at 0 and ia and the small-semicircle contribution
  • Take the imaginary part to get π(1 − e^(−a))/a²
  • Correct standard form with surplus, slack and artificial variables and −M penalties
  • Correct pivots (x₁ entering/A₁ leaving, then x₂ entering/A₂ leaving)
  • Optimal solution x₁ = 4, x₂ = 2, x₃ = 0, Z = 26

B

Q5
50M Compulsory solve PDE, numerical methods, Boolean algebra, classical mechanics, fluid dynamics

(a) Obtain the partial differential equation by eliminating arbitrary function f from the equation f(x+y+z, x²+y²+z²) = 0. (10 marks) (b) Find a positive root of the equation 3x = 1+cosx by a numerical technique using initial values 0, π/2; and further improve the result using Newton-Raphson method correct to 8 significant figures. (10 marks) (c) (i) Convert (3798·3875)₁₀ into octal and hexadecimal equivalents. (ii) Obtain the principal conjunctive normal form of (⌐P → R) ∧ (Q ⇔ P). (10 marks) (d) A particle is constrained to move along a circle lying in the vertical xy-plane. With the help of the D'Alembert's principle, show that its equation of motion is ẍy - ÿx - gx = 0, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. (10 marks) (e) What arrangements of sources and sinks can have the velocity potential w=logₑ(z-a²/z)? Draw the corresponding sketch of the streamlines and prove that two of them subdivide into the circle r=a and the axis of y. (10 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) समीकरण f(x+y+z, x²+y²+z²) = 0 से स्वेच्छिक फलन f का विलोपन कर आंशिक अवकल समीकरण को प्राप्त कीजिए। (10 अंक) (b) प्रारंभिक मानों 0, π/2 का उपयोग करके एक संख्यात्मक तकनीक के द्वारा समीकरण 3x = 1+cosx का एक धनात्मक मूल ज्ञात कीजिए, तथा न्यूटन-राप्सन विधि के द्वारा परिणाम को 8 सार्थक अंकों तक और शुद्ध मान के निकट लाइए। (10 अंक) (c) (i) (3798·3875)₁₀ को अष्टाधारी तथा षोडशाधारी तुल्यमानों में बदलिए। (ii) (⌐P → R) ∧ (Q ⇔ P) का मुख्य संयोजक सामान्य रूप (प्रिंसिपल कंजक्टिव नॉर्मल फॉर्म) प्राप्त कीजिए। (10 अंक) (d) उर्ध्वाधर xy-तल में स्थित एक वृत्त के अनुदिश एक कण गति के लिए बंधक है। डी'एलंबर्ट के नियम की सहायता से दर्शाइए कि इसकी गति का समीकरण ẍy - ÿx - gx = 0 है, जहाँ g गुरुत्वीय त्वरण है। (10 अंक) (e) उदगमों (स्रोतों) व अभिगमों (सिंकों) के किस विन्यास से वेग विभव w=logₑ(z-a²/z) हो सकता है? संगत धारा-रेखाओं का खाका खींचिए और सिद्ध कीजिए कि उनमें से दो, वृत्त r=a तथा y-अक्ष में प्रतिभाजित होती हैं। (10 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check | (b) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (c) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (d) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check | (e) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Complete working with all steps, correct results, clear notation, and verification

  • Differentiate with respect to x and y
  • Eliminate f_u, f_v via the vanishing determinant
  • Final PDE (y − z)p + (z − x)q = x − y
  • Show a single root in (0, π/2) via f(0) < 0 < f(π/2)
  • Apply a bracketing method (regula falsi) from 0 and π/2 for a first estimate
  • Newton–Raphson iteration giving 0.60710165
  • Octal 7326.3063146314… and hexadecimal ED6.6333…
  • Truth table showing true rows (TTT, TTF, FFT)
  • PCNF with the five maxterms from the false rows
  • State D'Alembert's principle and take the reaction as workless
  • Use the constraint x² + y² = a² to relate δx and δy
  • Derive ẍy − ÿx − gx = 0
  • Split w into log(z−a) + log(z+a) − log z and identify the sources/sinks
  • Stream function ψ = tan⁻¹[(r²+a²) sin θ/((r²−a²) cos θ)]
  • Show ψ = π/2 gives r = a and the y-axis
Q6
50M solve Wave equation, Boolean algebra, Lagrangian mechanics

(a) Solve the wave equation a²∂²u/∂x² = ∂²u/∂t², 0<x<L, t>0 subject to the conditions u(0,t)=0, u(L,t)=0 u(x,0)=(1/4)x(L-x), ∂u/∂t|ₜ₌₀=0 (20 marks) (b) Obtain the Boolean function F(x, y, z) based on the table given below. Then simplify F(x, y, z) and draw the corresponding GATE network: | x | y | z | F(x, y, z) | |---|---|---|------------| | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | (15 marks) (c) Obtain the Lagrangian equation for the motion of a system of two particles of unequal masses connected by an inextensible string passing over a small smooth pulley. (15 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) तरंग समीकरण a²∂²u/∂x² = ∂²u/∂t², 0<x<L, t>0 का शर्तों u(0,t)=0, u(L,t)=0 u(x,0)=(1/4)x(L-x), ∂u/∂t|ₜ₌₀=0 से प्रतिबंधित हल प्राप्त कीजिए। (20 अंक) (b) नीचे दी गई सारणी पर आधारित बूलियन फलन F(x,y,z) को निकालिए और तब F(x,y,z) को सरल कीजिए तथा उसके अनुरूप GATE परिपथ खींचिए : | x | y | z | F(x,y,z) | |:---:|:---:|:---:|:----------:| | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | (15 अंक) (c) एक छोटी चिकनी घिरनी के ऊपर से गुजरने वाली एक अवितान्य डोरी के सिरों से बंधे असमान संहति वाले दो कणों के निकाय की गति के लिए लग्रांजी समीकरण प्राप्त कीजिए। (15 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check | (b) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (c) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check Full marks: Complete derivations with all steps shown, correct final results, and clear diagrams where required.

  • Separation of variables with Xₙ = sin(nπx/L) from X(0) = X(L) = 0
  • Tₙ = cos(nπat/L) from u_t(x,0) = 0
  • Aₙ = 2L²/(n³π³) for odd n, 0 for even n, with the final series
  • Minterms 111, 110, 101, 011 identified
  • F simplified to xy + xz + yz
  • Network of three AND gates feeding one OR gate
  • Single coordinate x using the inextensible-string constraint
  • L = ½(m₁ + m₂)ẋ² + (m₁ − m₂)gx
  • (m₁ + m₂)ẍ = (m₁ − m₂)g
Q7
50M solve Partial differential equations, numerical methods, fluid dynamics

(a) Find the general solution of the partial differential equation (D² - D'² - 3D + 3D')z = xy + e^(x+2y) where D ≡ ∂/∂x and D' ≡ ∂/∂y. 15 marks (b) Solve the system of equations 3x₁ + 9x₂ - 2x₃ = 11 4x₁ + 2x₂ + 13x₃ = 24 4x₁ - 2x₂ + x₃ = -8 correct up to 4 significant figures by using Gauss-Seidel method after verifying whether the method is applicable in your transformed form of the system. 15 marks (c) Show that q⃗ = λ(-yî + xĵ)/(x² + y²), (λ = constant) is a possible incompressible fluid motion. Determine the streamlines. Is the kind of the motion potential? If yes, then find the velocity potential. 20 marks

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) आंशिक अवकल समीकरण (D² - D'² - 3D + 3D')z = xy + e^(x+2y) का व्यापक हल प्राप्त कीजिए, जहाँ D ≡ ∂/∂x तथा D' ≡ ∂/∂y है। 15 अंक (b) समीकरणों के निकाय 3x₁ + 9x₂ - 2x₃ = 11 4x₁ + 2x₂ + 13x₃ = 24 4x₁ - 2x₂ + x₃ = -8 का गॉस-सीडल विधि द्वारा 4 सार्थक अंकों तक सही हल प्राप्त कीजिए, यह सत्यापन करने के बाद कि क्या यह विधि आपके द्वारा निकाय के रूपांतरित रूप में अनुप्रयोज्य है। 15 अंक (c) दर्शाइए कि q⃗ = λ(-yî + xĵ)/(x² + y²), (λ = स्थिरांक) एक संभाव्य असंपीड्य तरल गति है। धारा-रेखाएँ निकालिए। क्या गति का प्रकार विभव है? यदि हाँ, तो वेग विभव निकालिए। 20 अंक

Answer approach & key points

Framework: UPSC Mathematics Paper 2. (a) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check | (b) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (c) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check Full marks: Rigorous derivation with all steps, correct factorization, and verified convergence.

  • Factorisation (D − D′)(D + D′ − 3) and complementary function φ(x + y) + e^(3x)ψ(y − x)
  • Resonant particular integral −x e^(x+2y)
  • Particular integral for xy and the complete general solution
  • Equations reordered to a strictly diagonally dominant form
  • Iteration formulae using the latest values
  • x₁ = −1.423, x₂ = 2.131, x₃ = 1.956
  • ∇·q = 0 shown for r ≠ 0
  • Streamlines x² + y² = constant
  • Irrotational, with Φ = λ tan⁻¹(y/x)
Q8
50M solve Charpit's method, interpolation, complex potential

(a) Find a complete integral of the partial differential equation p = (z + qy)² by using Charpit's method. 15 marks (b) Derive Newton's backward difference interpolation formula and also do error analysis. 15 marks (c) Show that for the complex potential tan⁻¹z, the streamlines and equipotential curves are circles. Find the velocity at any point and check the singularities at z = ±i. 20 marks

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) चारपिट विधि का उपयोग करके आंशिक अवकल समीकरण p = (z + qy)² का पूर्ण समाकल प्राप्त कीजिए। 15 अंक (b) न्यूटन के पश्चातर अंतर्वेशन सूत्र की व्युत्पत्ति कीजिए तथा त्रुटि-विश्लेषण भी कीजिए। 15 अंक (c) दर्शाइए कि सम्मिश्र विभव tan⁻¹z के लिए धारा-रेखाएँ तथा समविभव वक्र, वृत्त हैं। किसी भी बिंदु पर वेग निकालिए तथा z = ±i पर विचित्रता जाँचिए। 20 अंक

Answer approach & key points

(a) calculate: given > formula > substitution > result with units > interpretation | (b) derive: given > assumptions > stepwise derivation > result > check | (c) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion Full marks: Complete, rigorous derivations with all steps shown and verified.

  • Charpit's auxiliary equations with the correct partial derivatives of F
  • Integral py = a obtained from the auxiliary equations
  • Complete integral z = (ax + b)/y + 2ε√(a/y)
  • Backward difference operator and u = (x − xₙ)/h
  • Formula Pₙ = fₙ + u∇fₙ + u(u+1)/2! ∇²fₙ + …
  • Error term u(u+1)…(u+n)h^(n+1) f^(n+1)(ξ)/(n+1)!
  • Equipotentials as circles through z = ±i
  • Streamlines as circles x² + (y − coth 2C)² = cosech² 2C
  • u − iv = 1/(1 + z²) with singularities at z = ±i

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