(a) How is descriptive type of research different from diagnostic research? Answer the question giving suitable example of each…

(a) Descriptive versus diagnostic research

Descriptive research describes the characteristics of a group or phenomenon as it stands: who, what, where and how many. It uses surveys, observation or case series, with no manipulation of variables and no search for causes. Example: a survey recording the proportion of Class XII students who report exam anxiety, by gender and stream. Diagnostic research asks why. It determines the frequency of something together with its association with other variables, and seeks the causes of a specific problem so that a remedy can be planned. It uses case studies, interviews, psychological tests and comparison of cases with and without the problem. Example: a school finds high dropout and studies its causes (poverty, poor teaching, peer pressure, early marriage) to design retention measures. Both need a clear problem definition and a structured design to guard against bias, but descriptive research maps the status quo and diagnostic research analyses the problem. The first answers "what is the situation", the second "what is behind it".

(b) Mental health as the major trend of 21st-century psychology

The claim has strong support but is not complete. Burden: the WHO estimated a 25% rise in global anxiety and depression in the first year of COVID-19, and India's National Mental Health Survey 2015-16 reported about 10.6% of adults with a mental disorder and a very large treatment gap. Policy has followed, through WHO's Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2030, India's Mental Healthcare Act 2017 and Tele-MANAS (2022). Within psychology, the shift from pathology to well-being came with positive psychology (Seligman), and the field grew in clinical, school, workplace and community settings, including digital interventions. Stress, urbanisation, social media and work pressure are the main drivers. But it is not the only trend: cognitive neuroscience, AI and behavioural economics are also expanding. So mental health is best seen as a leading, cross-cutting priority rather than the sole direction of the discipline.

(c) Subliminal perception and its role in advertising

Subliminal perception is the registering of a stimulus presented below the threshold of awareness, so it is processed without conscious recognition and may still affect thoughts or choices (for example in masked priming experiments). In advertising, it is claimed that a hidden cue, such as a brand flashed for a few milliseconds or embedded in an image, shifts preference without the viewer noticing. The standard example is James Vicary's 1957 cinema claim that "Eat Popcorn" and "Drink Coca-Cola" flashes raised sales; he later admitted it was not a real study. Later work, such as Karremans et al. (2006), found that a subliminally primed brand (Lipton Ice) affected choice only among participants who were already thirsty. So the effects are small and depend on existing motivation. Because the viewer cannot consciously resist such cues, they are ethically objectionable, and broadcast codes in countries such as the UK prohibit subliminal techniques.

(d) Using learning theories to help a relative undergoing chemotherapy

Classical conditioning explains anticipatory nausea: the hospital, smell or food linked to the drug's nausea becomes a conditioned stimulus. Steps: relaxation and guided imagery, systematic desensitisation, and a "scapegoat" novel food (Bernstein, 1978) before the session so that the aversion attaches to it rather than to regular meals. Operant conditioning supports adherence and coping: reinforce taking medicines, eating small meals and attending appointments with praise or a preferred activity (shaping), without pressuring the patient. Observational learning (Bandura): introduce the patient to survivors or support groups, and model calm behaviour, which builds self-efficacy. Overall, the expected outcome is less anticipatory distress, better adherence and a stronger sense of control, which complements the medical care.

(e) Factors facilitating problem-solving

Problem-solving is the cognitive effort to reach a goal when the route is not obvious. The main facilitating factors are: Representation: a well-framed problem (diagrams, restating the goal) makes the structure visible. Expertise and prior knowledge: stored schemas help experts see the deep structure, as chess masters do (Chi). Strategies: algorithms and heuristics such as means-end analysis (Newell and Simon), and analogy, which transfers a known solution (Gick and Holyoak's radiation problem). Incubation and insight: stepping away helps to break an impasse and fixedness such as functional fixedness (Duncker's candle problem). Working memory, moderate arousal and positive mood help sustain search. Motivation and collaboration help, and so does creativity (divergent thinking). For example, an engineer who restates a traffic jam as a flow problem may borrow ideas from plumbing.