Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (a) Compare directional and non-directional therapies with reference to…

(a) Directional therapies are therapist-led, structured interventions in which the clinician sets goals, selects techniques, and guides the client, as in cognitive-behavioural therapy, exposure therapy, or problem-solving therapy. Non-directional therapies, especially Rogerian client-centred therapy, leave the agenda largely to the client; the therapist provides empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence, helping the person explore feelings and self-understanding. The key difference is control: directional work is problem-focused and skill-building, while non-directional work is process-focused and self-actualization-oriented. Their effectiveness differs by outcome. For circumscribed symptoms such as phobia, panic, depression or behavioural problems, directional therapies often show faster symptom reduction and measurable behavioural change. For identity confusion, low self-esteem, relational distress or personal growth, non-directional approaches may be more effective because they strengthen autonomy, insight and self-acceptance. In practice, many Indian clinical settings use a blended stance: directive for acute symptoms, non-directive for long-term adjustment.

(b) Positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia differ in kind, not merely degree. Positive symptoms are excesses or distortions of normal experience: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behaviour. They reflect added, often bizarre, mental activity and are usually more responsive to antipsychotic medication. Negative symptoms are deficits or reductions in normal functioning: alogia, avolition, anhedonia, flat affect, and social withdrawal. They reflect loss of motivation, expression and engagement, and are often more persistent and harder to treat. Neurobiologically, positive symptoms are commonly linked with dopamine hyperactivity in mesolimbic pathways, while negative symptoms are associated with hypofrontality and dopaminergic deficits in prefrontal circuits. Clinically, positive symptoms dominate acute episodes and may bring the patient to hospital, whereas negative symptoms shape chronic disability, poor social adjustment and long-term prognosis. A comparative view therefore shows that positive symptoms are overt, measurable and often treatable, while negative symptoms are subtle, enduring and central to functional recovery.

(c) Biofeedback is a learning-based therapy in which a person receives continuous information about normally unconscious autonomic responses, such as muscle tension, heart rate, skin temperature or respiration. Through operant conditioning, the client learns to voluntarily modify these responses: relaxation lowers tension, controlled breathing reduces arousal, and thermal feedback may help vascular regulation. Its nature is therefore self-regulation of physiological states, not direct medical treatment. Its significance lies in expanding the client’s sense of agency over stress-related symptoms. It is used as an adjunct in anxiety, migraine, and stress-related hypertension, though evidence for essential hypertension is mixed and it is not a first-line treatment. In India, biofeedback has value in yoga-integrated interventions, where breath awareness, meditation and physiological monitoring can support stress management in schools, workplaces and mental-health clinics. It is especially useful where medication is limited, side-effects are a concern, or the client needs a practical skill for self-management.

(d) Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder with a neurodevelopmental basis, marked by persistent difficulty in accurate or fluent word reading, poor spelling and weak decoding, despite adequate instruction and opportunity. Its core nature is often a phonological processing deficit: the person has difficulty identifying, storing and manipulating speech sounds, which affects reading, spelling and sometimes written expression. It is not caused by low vision, low motivation or general intellectual disability. Diagnosis requires comprehensive clinical and psychoeducational assessment, not a single test. In India, screening may use tools such as the Dyslexia Screening Test-Junior (DST-J), but screening must be followed by diagnostic evaluation. Standardized diagnostic assessment may include the NIMHANS SLD battery, reading, spelling, phonological awareness, memory, attention and language measures. DSM-5 and ICD-11 do not require an IQ–achievement discrepancy; diagnosis rests on persistent reading difficulties despite intervention and assessment of developmental history, educational impact and response to support.

(e) Appreciating diversity is a core value for a community psychologist in India because the community is not a uniform unit but a mosaic of caste, tribal, linguistic, religious, gender, regional and socio-economic differences. A community psychologist must understand that mental health, help-seeking, stigma and resilience are shaped by these identities. In a caste-based society, for example, a Dalit client may face discrimination that affects self-worth, while a tribal community may have its own healing practices and collective decision-making. Linguistic diversity means that psychological assessment and counselling must be culturally and idiomatically appropriate, not merely translated. Schemes such as the District Mental Health Programme (DMHP) and community mental health services require psychologists to work with primary health teams, schools, panchayats and NGOs, where cultural competence is essential. Even behaviour-change campaigns like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan succeed only when they respect local beliefs, rituals and social hierarchies. Thus, diversity appreciation is not a soft value; it is the basis of ethical, effective and inclusive community practice.