(a) Discuss the changing nature of kinship relations in the contemporary world. 20 (b) Describe the role of Science and…

(a) Changing nature of kinship relations in the contemporary world

Kinship is diversifying but not dissolving.

• Forms: urbanisation, migration and work have produced nuclear, single-parent, reconstituted and live-in arrangements alongside joint families; many families remain functionally joint across households, which sociologists describe as modified extended kinship.
• Reproduction: assisted reproductive technologies (IVF, surrogacy) and adoption have separated biological and social parenthood, and raise questions of legal parentage.
• Marriage and gender: later marriage, women's employment and partner choice loosen patriarchal authority, yet arranged marriage, caste endogamy, patrilocality and dowry persist, with digital matrimonial platforms reinforcing rather than dissolving caste and community preferences.
• Ties across distance: migrant and diasporic families keep emotional and material obligations alive through remittances, video calls and family messaging groups.
• Recognition: courts and laws increasingly recognise diverse family forms, including live-in relationships and same-sex partnerships.

The change is therefore adaptive: kinship obligations survive in new forms rather than disappearing.

(b) Role of science and technology in facing COVID-19 challenges

• Medical science: mRNA, viral-vector and inactivated vaccines were developed in record time; India produced Covishield and Covaxin and expanded vaccine manufacturing. Genomic sequencing, through the INSACOG consortium (formed December 2020), tracked variants.
• Care delivery: telemedicine, such as eSanjeevani, kept consultations going during lockdowns; diagnostics, PPE and oxygen systems were scaled up.
• Governance and relief: CoWIN managed vaccine registration and certification; Aarogya Setu was used for contact tracing in 2020–21; digital transfers through the Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) route delivered relief.
• Continuity of life: online schooling, remote work and e-commerce kept education, work and supply running.

Limits: the digital divide excluded rural, poor and marginalised families from online learning and slot booking; contact-tracing apps raised privacy and surveillance concerns. Technology helps most when combined with public health capacity and equity.

(c) Roles and functions of civil society in a democratic system

Civil society is the sphere of voluntary associations between the state, market and family.

• Social capital: Putnam argued that associational life builds trust and civic engagement that deepen democracy.
• Watchdog: it holds power to account, for example through the Right to Information movement and public interest litigation.
• Representation: it gives voice to marginalised groups and shapes policy through advocacy and social movements.
• Service delivery: NGOs and community groups fill gaps, such as relief and community kitchens for stranded workers during the pandemic.
• Civic education and deliberation: it builds the public sphere in which citizens debate policy.

Constraints include elite capture, donor dependence and regulation such as FCRA conditions; debate continues on the balance between accountability and autonomy.