Law

UPSC Law 2023 — Paper I

All 8 questions from UPSC Civil Services Mains Law 2023 Paper I (400 marks total). Every stem reproduced in full, with directive-word analysis, marks, word limits, and answer-approach pointers.

8Questions
400Total marks
2023Year
Paper IPaper

Topics covered

Constitutional law fundamentals (1)Constitutional rights and institutions (1)Election commission, legal aid and eminent domain (1)President's rule, Lokpal and advisory jurisdiction (1)International law fundamentals (1)Evolution and implementation of international law (1)UN Charter, treaty reservations and use of force (1)WTO, environmental protection and humanitarian law (1)

A

Q1
50M 150w Compulsory explain Constitutional law fundamentals

Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : 10×5=50 (a) "Preamble of the Indian Constitution is indicative of basic values that the political system is expected to pursue." How far do you agree with the statement ? Explain with the reference to values that have been enshrined in the Preamble of the Constitution. 10 (b) "The office of the President under the Indian Constitution has been designed to be largely that of a 'figurehead'." Explain, with reference to the cases decided on the subject. 10 (c) "There is an obvious slant in favour of the Centre, in distribution of powers between Centre and States." Do you agree with the statement ? Explain. 10 (d) "The principles of natural justice are not cast in stone and there is always a possibility of deviation from stated principles of law in view of overall demands of justice." Explain citing decided cases on the subject. 10 (e) Explain and elucidate the grounds of judicial review for administrative action, by quoting decided cases on the subject. 10

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों में से प्रत्येक का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए : 10×5=50 (a) "भारतीय संविधान की उद्देशिका (प्रस्तावना) राजनीतिक व्यवस्था द्वारा अनुसरण के लिए अपेक्षित आधारभूत मूल्यों को उपदर्शित करती है।" आप इस कथन से कहाँ तक सहमत हैं ? संविधान की उद्देशिका (प्रस्तावना) में लिपिबद्ध मूल्यों का संदर्भ देते हुए व्याख्या कीजिए। 10 (b) "भारतीय संविधान में राष्ट्रपति का पद मुख्यतः 'नाम मात्र के प्रमुख' के रूप में परिकल्पित है।" इस विषय पर निर्णीत वादों के संदर्भ में व्याख्या कीजिए। 10 (c) "केंद्र तथा राज्य के बीच शक्ति वितरण में केंद्र के प्रति स्पष्ट झुकाव परिलक्षित होता है।" क्या आप इस कथन से सहमत हैं ? व्याख्या कीजिए। 10 (d) "नैसर्गिक न्याय के सिद्धांत पत्थर में नहीं ढाले गए हैं और समग्र न्याय की माँग की दृष्टि से उनमें स्थापित विधि के सिद्धांतों से विचलन की सदैव संभावना रहती है।" इस विषय पर विनिश्चित वादों का संदर्भ देकर व्याख्या कीजिए। 10 (e) इस विषय पर निर्णीत वादों का उद्धरण देते हुए प्रशासनिक कार्यवाही के न्यायिक पुनरावलोकन के आधारों की व्याख्या एवं विशदीकरण कीजिए। 10

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (d) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (e) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Precise legal reasoning, specific case citations, and clear application of law to the question.

  • Identify specific values (e.g., Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity)
  • Link values to the political system's expected pursuit
  • Reference the 42nd Amendment (1976) additions
  • Mention the Preamble's role in interpretation (Kesavananda Bharati)
  • President as constitutional head: Arts 53, 74(1) with 42nd/44th Amendments, 74(2)
  • Cases: Ram Jawaya Kapur (1955), U.N.R. Rao (1971), Shamsher Singh (1974)
  • Areas of limited discretion (hung Parliament, 74(1) proviso, pocket veto, Art 78, Art 143)
  • Pardon on advice: Maru Ram (1980), Kehar Singh (1989)
  • Legislative dominance: Union List, Art 254, residuary Art 248, Arts 249-253
  • Administrative and financial tilt: Arts 256-257, 365, Governor, AIS, Arts 270-293
  • Emergency provisions (Arts 352, 356, 360) and Art 3
  • Counter-balances and conclusion (S.R. Bommai; cooperative federalism)
  • Define natural justice: audi alteram partem, nemo judex; flexible (A.K. Kraipak 1969)
  • Post-decisional hearing in urgency (Maneka Gandhi 1978; Swadeshi Cotton Mills 1981)
  • Exclusions: statutory (Tulsiram Patel 1985), necessity (EC v Subramaniam Swamy 1996)
  • Useless formality / prejudice test (Aligarh Muslim University 2000; S.K. Sharma 1996; B. Karunakar 1993)
  • Define judicial review of administrative action (Arts 32/226; basic structure - L. Chandra Kumar)
  • GCHQ grounds: illegality, irrationality (Wednesbury), procedural impropriety
  • Proportionality (Ranjit Thakur 1987; Om Kumar 2001; Modern Dental College 2016)
  • Illustrative cases for each ground (Rohtas; Barium Chemicals; E.P. Royappa; Kraipak)
Q2
50M explain Constitutional rights and institutions

(a) "The Constitution of India has provided for a clear-cut distinction between civil and political rights on the one hand and economic and cultural rights on the other, with a distinct primacy given to civil and political rights." Explain. 20 (b) "Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies have been accorded constitutional status." Explain the ambit and structure of the authority of Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies under the Indian Constitution. 15 (c) "The Constitution of India provides constitutional status and protection to civil servants." What protections have been secured for civil servants in India ? Explain. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "भारत के संविधान में सिविल एवं राजनीतिक अधिकारों को विशिष्ट प्राथमिकता देते हुए एक तरफ सिविल एवं राजनीतिक अधिकार तथा दूसरी तरफ आर्थिक एवं सांस्कृतिक अधिकारों के बीच स्पष्ट अंतर का प्रावधान किया गया है।" व्याख्या कीजिए। 20 (b) "पंचायती राज संस्थाओं तथा नगरीय स्थानीय निकायों को संवैधानिक प्रतिष्ठा प्राप्त है।" भारतीय संविधान में दी गयी पंचायती राज संस्थाओं तथा नगरीय स्थानीय निकायों के प्राधिकार की परिधि एवं संरचना की व्याख्या कीजिए। 15 (c) "भारत का संविधान सिविल सेवकों को संवैधानिक प्रतिष्ठा तथा संरक्षण प्रदान करता है।" भारत में सिविल सेवकों को क्या-क्या संरक्षण सुनिश्चित किए गए हैं ? व्याख्या कीजिए। 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule: statute or Article > Authority > Application and conclusion. (a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Precise citation of Articles (311, 312, 73rd/74th Amendment) and case law (Kesavananda, Minerva Mills).

  • Identify Fundamental Rights (Part III) as justiciable civil/political rights
  • Identify DPSP (Part IV) as non-justiciable economic/cultural rights
  • Explain the 'primacy' via Article 37 (DPSP not enforceable)
  • Discuss the 'harmonious construction' doctrine (Directive Principles vs Fundamental Rights)
  • 73rd/74th Amendments (1992): Parts IX and IXA, Eleventh/Twelfth Schedules
  • Structure: Gram Sabha, three tiers (Art 243B), three kinds of municipalities (243Q), wards committees
  • Constitutional safeguards: reservation (243D/243T), five-year term (243E/243U), SEC (243K/243ZA), SFC (243I/243Y)
  • Ambit: 'may' devolve powers and taxation (243G/243W, 243H/243X) - State discretion; DPC/MPC
  • Article 310 pleasure doctrine and its limits
  • Article 311(1) and 311(2) inquiry protection (only for penal action - Parshotam Lal Dhingra 1958)
  • Exceptions under second proviso and Art 311(3) (Tulsiram Patel 1985)
  • Other protections: Arts 309, 14/16, 320, 323A, 312, 310(2)
Q3
50M critically examine Election commission, legal aid and eminent domain

(a) "Superintendence, direction and control of elections is vested in the office of the Election Commission and therefore, the appointment of Election Commissioner is of crucial importance in conducting free and fair elections." Critically examine the above statement with reference to recent judicial decisions. 20 (b) "'Legal-Aid' provides a basic tool for access to justice for poor and marginalized sections of society." Discuss and elucidate the Constitutional provisions and the provisions of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987. 15 (c) "The strength of the 'eminent domain' is inversely proportional to the strength of democratic structure of any system." Do you agree with this statement ? Explain. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "चुनावों के अधीक्षण, निर्देशन एवं नियंत्रण का कार्य निर्वाचन आयोग के पद में निहित है। अतः स्वतंत्र एवं निष्पक्ष निर्वाचन के लिए चुनाव आयुक्त की नियुक्ति का निर्णायक महत्व है।" अद्यतन न्यायिक विनिश्चयों के संदर्भ में उपर्युक्त कथन का आलोचनात्मक परीक्षण कीजिए। 20 (b) " 'विधिक-सहायता' समाज के गरीब एवं सीमांत (हाशिए पर) वर्गों के लिए न्याय तक पहुँच का मूल यंत्र है।" इस विषय में संवैधानिक उपबंधों तथा विधिक सेवा प्राधिकरण अधिनियम, 1987 के उपबंधों की विवेचना एवं विशदीकरण कीजिए। 15 (c) "किसी व्यवस्था में 'एमिनेंट डोमेन' की शक्ति, लोकतांत्रिक संरचना की शक्ति की व्युत्क्रमानुपाती होती है।" क्या आप इस कथन से सहमत हैं ? व्याख्या कीजिए । 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) critique: the claim > its strengths > its weaknesses > your judgment | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) comment: context > arguments both sides > judgment > close Full marks: Comprehensive, well-structured, with precise legal citations and critical analysis.

  • Article 324 plenary power (Mohinder Singh Gill 1978) and appointment under 324(2)
  • Anoop Baranwal (2023): committee of PM, LoP, CJI until law made
  • CEC and Other ECs Act 2023: PM, LoP, Cabinet Minister; search committee; challenge (Jaya Thakur 2024)
  • Critical evaluation: tenure disparity (Art 324(5)), executive dominance vs parliamentary competence
  • Article 39A and Arts 14, 21, 22(1) - legal aid as fundamental right (Hoskot 1978; Hussainara 1979; Khatri 1981; Suk Das 1986)
  • LSA Act structure: NALSA, SLSA, DLSA, Taluk committees
  • Section 12 entitlement categories
  • Lok Adalats (ss.19-22) and Permanent Lok Adalats (ss.22A-22E)
  • Define eminent domain and its maxims
  • Indian position: Art 300A after 44th Amendment; K.T. Plantation (2011); Vidya Devi (2020); Kolkata MC v Bimal Kumar Shah (2024) seven sub-rights
  • Arguments for and against the inverse-proportion claim (R.L. Arora 1962; LARR 2013; Kelo 2005)
  • Balanced conclusion: democracy disciplines rather than abolishes eminent domain
Q4
50M critically examine President's rule, Lokpal and advisory jurisdiction

(a) What do you understand by breakdown of constitutional machinery in a State ? Critically examine the powers of the President in imposing President's Rule under Article 356 of the Constitution, by citing decided cases on the point. 20 (b) Discuss the objectives of the establishment of Lokpal and Lok Ayukta, and their powers and functions under the Lokpal and Lok Ayuktas Act, 2013. Examine the effectiveness of the said Act. 15 (c) If at any time, it appears to the President that a critical question of law and fact has arisen, the President can obtain the opinion of the Supreme Court. Discuss the role of the Supreme Court in this matter, by giving suitable examples. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) किसी राज्य में संवैधानिक मशीनरी के ठप्प (विराम) हो जाने से आप क्या समझते हैं ? इस बिन्दु पर निर्णीत वादों को उद्धृत करते हुए संविधान के अनुच्छेद 356 के अंतर्गत राष्ट्रपति शासन लागू करने की राष्ट्रपति की शक्तियों का आलोचनात्मक परीक्षण कीजिए । 20 (b) लोकपाल एवं लोक आयुक्त अधिनियम, 2013 के अंतर्गत लोकपाल एवं लोक आयुक्त की स्थापना के उद्देश्यों तथा उनकी शक्तियों एवं कार्यों की विवेचना कीजिए । कथित अधिनियम की प्रभावशीलता का परीक्षण कीजिए । 15 (c) यदि किसी समय राष्ट्रपति को प्रतीत होता है कि विधि एवं तथ्य का जटिल प्रश्न उत्पन्न हो गया है, तो राष्ट्रपति उच्चतम न्यायालय की राय प्राप्त कर सकता है । उचित उदाहरण देते हुए इस विषय पर उच्चतम न्यायालय (सुप्रीम कोर्ट) की भूमिका की विवेचना कीजिए । 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) critically evaluate: positives > negatives/limits > conditions/safeguards > conclusion | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Comprehensive, well-structured, cites specific cases and articles, critically evaluates, and provides relevant examples.

  • Define breakdown under Art 356(1) and Art 365; distinguish from maladministration
  • Procedure and limits: Governor's report, Art 356(3) approval, six-month periods, 44th Amendment conditions (Art 356(5))
  • S.R. Bommai (1994) ratio: judicial review of material, floor test, no dissolution before approval, restoration
  • Critical evaluation: history of misuse, Sarkaria/Punchhi recommendations, residual weaknesses
  • Objectives of the 2013 Act (ARC 1966, UNCAC, anti-corruption movement)
  • Lokpal composition and Selection Committee (ss.3-4); jurisdiction incl. PM with safeguards (s.14)
  • Powers: Inquiry/Prosecution Wings, CBI superintendence (s.25), attachment (s.29), civil court powers; Lokayuktas under s.63
  • Effectiveness: delays (first Lokpal 2019), low prosecutions, executive dependence, uneven Lokayuktas

B

Q5
50M 150w Compulsory comment International law fundamentals

Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : 10×5=50 (a) "Triumph of Positivism has reduced an individual to be an object of international law rather than a subject of international law." Comment on the status of the individual under international law in the light of the above statement. 10 (b) What do you mean by 'Contiguous Zone' ? Explain with reference to Indian practices on the subject. 10 (c) Explain the impact of recognition on the powers and privileges of the States. 10 (d) Explain the principle of 'Jus cogens' with reference to 'Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties, 1969'. 10 (e) "International Criminal Court is more of a Eurocentric Organisation than an International Court." Explain the jurisdiction of International Criminal Court in light of the above statement. 10

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित प्रश्नों में से प्रत्येक का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए : 10×5=50 (a) "प्रत्यक्षवाद के विजय ने व्यक्ति को अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि का विषय बनाने के बजाय अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि का वस्तु बना दिया ।" उक्त कथन के आलोक में अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि में व्यक्ति की प्रस्थिति पर टिप्पणी कीजिए । 10 (b) 'संलग्न परिक्षेत्र' से आप क्या समझते हैं ? इस विषय पर भारतीय अभ्यास (पद्धति) के संदर्भ में व्याख्या कीजिए । 10 (c) राज्यों की शक्तियों एवं विशेषाधिकारों पर मान्यता के प्रभाव की व्याख्या कीजिए । 10 (d) 'संधियों की विधि पर वियना अभिसमय, 1969' के संदर्भ में 'जस कोजेन्स' के सिद्धांत की व्याख्या कीजिए । 10 (e) "अंतर्राष्ट्रीय अपराध न्यायालय, एक अंतर्राष्ट्रीय न्यायालय की अपेक्षा यूरोपकेन्द्रित संगठन अधिक है ।" उक्त कथन के आलोक में अंतर्राष्ट्रीय अपराध न्यायालय के क्षेत्राधिकार की व्याख्या कीजिए । 10

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) comment: context > arguments both sides > judgment > close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (d) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (e) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Precise legal terminology, specific Article citations, balanced argumentation, clear structure.

  • Positivist (consent-based) view: States sole subjects, individuals objects (Oppenheim, Anzilotti; Mavrommatis 1924)
  • Subject vs object distinction; Kelsen's contrary view
  • Erosion: treaty rights (Danzig Railway Officials 1928; LaGrand 2001), individual criminal responsibility (Nuremberg, Rome Statute), procedural capacity (ECHR, ICCPR OP, ICSID)
  • Conclusion: individual is a limited/derivative subject
  • Define contiguous zone: up to 24 nm from baselines (UNCLOS Art 33)
  • Limited control: prevent/punish customs, fiscal, immigration, sanitary infringements; not sovereignty
  • Indian law: Maritime Zones Act 1976, s.5 incl. 'security' head beyond UNCLOS
  • Indian practice: enforcement agencies; Enrica Lexie
  • Constitutive vs declaratory theory (Montevideo 1933 Art 3)
  • Consequences: diplomatic relations, treaty capacity, access to courts, sovereign immunity
  • Retroactive effect and validity of acts (Luther v Sagor 1921); property abroad (Haile Selassie 1939)
  • De jure vs de facto recognition; non-recognition limits
  • Define jus cogens using the Art 53 wording: a norm accepted and recognised by the international community of States as a whole, from which no derogation is permitted, modifiable only by a norm of the same character
  • Art 53: a treaty conflicting with a peremptory norm is void ab initio
  • Art 64: a newly emerging peremptory norm voids and terminates any existing treaty in conflict
  • Examples: prohibition of genocide, slavery, torture, aggressive use of force (ILC 2022 list)
  • ICC jurisdiction: subject-matter (Art 5), temporal (Art 11), preconditions (Art 12)
  • Triggers: State referral, UNSC referral, proprio motu (Arts 13, 15); UNSC deferral (Art 16)
  • Complementarity (Art 17)
  • Evaluate Eurocentric critique with counterpoints (self-referrals, non-African situations)
Q6
50M differentiate Evolution and implementation of international law

(a) "Law must be stable, and yet it cannot stand still, as it needs to reconcile the conflicting needs of stability and change and in the fast-developing world, the stability appears to have become the casualty in international law." Differentiate between traditional International Law and new International Law in light of the above statement. 20 (b) "States show considerable flexibility in the procedures, whereby they give effect to the rules of the International Law, within their territory." Explain the acceptability of norms of International Law in India, citing relevant cases on the subject. 15 (c) How do you distinguish between 'Continental Shelf' and 'Exclusive Economic Zone'? Explain giving examples. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "विधि को स्थायी होना चाहिए, हालांकि यह स्थिर नहीं रह सकती है, क्योंकि इसे स्थायित्व एवं परिवर्तन की संविरोधी आवश्यकताओं में सामंजस्य बनाना है और तीव्र विकासमान विश्व में अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि में स्थायित्व अपघटन के रूप में प्रतीत होता है ।" उपर्युक्त कथन के आलोक में परम्परागत अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि एवं नवीन अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि में भेद बतलाइए । 20 (b) "राज्य अपने भूभाग पर अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि के नियमों को प्रभाव देने के लिए प्रक्रिया में पर्याप्त लचीलापन दर्शाते हैं ।" इस विषय पर संगत वादों का उद्धरण देते हुए भारत में अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि के मानकों की स्वीकार्यता की व्याख्या कीजिए । 15 (c) 'महाद्वीपीय ममतटभूमि (शेल्फ)' तथा 'अनन्य आर्थिक परिक्षेत्र' में आप कैसे विभेद करेंगे ? सोदाहरण व्याख्या कीजिए । 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) compare: paired headings or table > key differences > significance > conclusion | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) compare: paired headings or table > key differences > significance > conclusion Full marks: Precise legal distinctions, relevant case law, and clear application to the prompt.

  • Frame the stability vs change tension (Pound's dictum)
  • Compare traditional (state-centric, consent, war lawful, Eurocentric; Lotus 1927) with new IL (multiple subjects, Art 2(4), jus cogens/erga omnes, cooperation law)
  • Examples of evolving norms: self-determination, human rights, ICL, environment, common heritage
  • Evaluate whether stability is a casualty (fragmentation, soft law, contested use of force) vs stable core
  • Monism vs dualism; India's mixed approach
  • Constitutional provisions: Arts 51(c), 73, 253, 372
  • Treaty cases: Berubari (1960), Maganbhai (1969), Jolly George Varghese (1980)
  • Custom: Gramophone Co (1984) incorporation; Vellore (1996); treaty use to fill gaps (Vishaka 1997, PUCL 1997)
Q7
50M elucidate UN Charter, treaty reservations and use of force

(a) "Preamble of the UN Charter is representative of the aspirations of humanity in ensuring peace and security across the globe." How far have these objectives been achieved by the UN? Explain and elucidate. 20 (b) "Reservation in multilateral treaty excludes or modifies the legal effect of certain provisions of a treaty in its application to that State." Explain the circumstances under which reservations in treaties are permissible under International Law. 15 (c) Under what circumstances is recourse to 'force' or 'aggression' permissible and justifiable under International Law ? 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "संयुक्त राष्ट्र चार्टर की प्रस्तावना संपूर्ण विश्व में शांति एवं सुरक्षा सुनिश्चित करने में मानवता की आकांक्षाओं का प्रतिनिधित्व करती है ।" संयुक्त राष्ट्र द्वारा इन लक्ष्यों को किस सीमा तक हासिल किया गया है ? व्याख्या एवं विशदीकरण कीजिए । 20 (b) "बहुपक्षीय संधि में आपत्ति, संधि के कुछ प्रावधानों की उस राज्य में प्रयोज्यता के विधिक परिणामों को अपवर्जित या उपांतरित करती है ।" उन परिस्थितियों की व्याख्या कीजिए, जिनके अंतर्गत अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि में संधियों में आपत्तियाँ अनुमन्य हैं । 15 (c) अंतर्राष्ट्रीय विधि में किन परिस्थितियों में 'बल प्रयोग' या 'आक्रमण' अनुमन्य और न्यायसंगत है ? 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) examine: intro > how/why with reasoning > evidence > conclusion | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) justify: claim > 3-4 reasons > evidence > conclusion Full marks: Precise legal citations, balanced analysis, and clear application of law to the specific question.

  • Quote Preamble aspirations (scourge of war, human rights, justice/treaty obligations, social progress) and link to Art 1, Art 2(4), Chapter VII
  • Achievements: no world war, peacekeeping, decolonisation, human rights and legal codification, arms control, development
  • Failures: veto paralysis (Syria, Ukraine), Rwanda/Srebrenica, unilateral force (Iraq 2003), unrepresentative Council, finances
  • Balanced assessment with reform agenda
  • Definition under VCLT Art 2(1)(d); substance over label
  • Art 19 permissibility: treaty prohibition, specified reservations, object-and-purpose test (Genocide Convention AO 1951)
  • Acceptance/objection (Art 20 incl. 12-month rule) and legal effects (Art 21)
  • Special issues: human rights treaties, jus cogens
  • General prohibition: Art 2(4), customary and jus cogens status (Nicaragua 1986)
  • Aggression never justifiable: GA Res 3314 (1974) Arts 3 and 5; Rome Statute Art 8 bis
  • Self-defence under Art 51: armed attack, necessity, proportionality, reporting (Caroline; Nicaragua; Oil Platforms)
  • Security Council authorisation under Chapter VII (Arts 39, 42) with examples
Q8
50M critically evaluate WTO, environmental protection and humanitarian law

(a) "WTO provides a platform for agreements amongst its members which form the legal foundation of global trade." Critically evaluate the importance of WTO in the new international economic order. 20 (b) "Member States of the UN need to take appropriate action for protecting and improving human environment." In light of the above statement, highlight the major steps of the UN for protecting human environment. 15 (c) "International Humanitarian Law is a set of rules to limit the effects of armed conflict, whereas International Human Rights Law seeks to ensure a set of rights which are essential for survival of humans as Humans." Distinguish between International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law in terms of their contents and purposes. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "डब्ल्यू.टी.ओ. (विश्व व्यापार संगठन) अपने सदस्यों के बीच करार के लिए एक प्लेटफार्म प्रदान करता है जो कि वैश्विक व्यापार का विधिक आधार सृजित करता है।" नवीन अंतर्राष्ट्रीय आर्थिक व्यवस्था के अंतर्गत डब्ल्यू.टी.ओ. के महत्व का आलोचनात्मक मूल्यांकन कीजिए । 20 (b) "संयुक्त राष्ट्र के सदस्य राष्ट्रों को मानव पर्यावरण के संरक्षण एवं संवर्धन हेतु उचित कदम उठाने की आवश्यकता है ।" उपर्युक्त कथन के आलोक में मानव पर्यावरण के संरक्षण हेतु संयुक्त राष्ट्र द्वारा उठाए गए प्रमुख कदमों पर प्रकाश डालिए । 15 (c) "अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मानवीय विधि सशस्त्र संघर्ष के प्रभाव को सीमित करने वाले नियमों का समुच्चय है, जबकि अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार विधि अधिकारों के समुच्चय को सुनिश्चित करना चाहती है जो कि मानवों के मानव के रूप में उत्तरजीविता के लिए आवश्यक हैं ।" अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मानवीय विधि एवं अंतर्राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार विधि के बीच उनके अंतर्वस्तु एवं उद्देश्यों के आधार पर विभेद कीजिए । 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) critically evaluate: positives > negatives/limits > conditions/safeguards > conclusion | (b) highlight: name the salient points > one line of substance each > close | (c) compare: paired headings or table > key differences > significance > conclusion Full marks: Comprehensive, critical, and well-supported with specific examples and legal references.

  • WTO as legal foundation: Marrakesh Agreement, covered agreements, single undertaking, core principles (MFN, NT, bindings, Art XI, Arts XX-XXI)
  • Dispute settlement: DSU compulsory jurisdiction, reverse consensus, retaliation; illustrative disputes
  • Link to NIEO (1974 resolutions) and S&DT for developing countries
  • Critical limits: Appellate Body paralysis since 2019, Doha stalemate, agriculture/PSH, unilateral tariffs; balanced conclusion
  • Stockholm 1972 (Declaration Principles 1 and 21; UNEP)
  • Rio 1992 (Rio Declaration principles, Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD)
  • Treaty regimes: Montreal/Kigali, Kyoto/Paris, biodiversity (Kunming-Montreal, BBNJ), chemicals conventions
  • Significance and gaps, with SDGs and right to healthy environment (GA Res 76/300)

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