Law

UPSC Law 2023 — Paper II

All 8 questions from UPSC Civil Services Mains Law 2023 Paper II (400 marks total). Every stem reproduced in full, with directive-word analysis, marks, word limits, and answer-approach pointers.

8Questions
400Total marks
2023Year
Paper IIPaper

Topics covered

IPC, torts and criminal law doctrines (1)Criminal offences, negligence and atrocities law (1)IPC offences against women, consumer protection and torts (1)Theft, corruption law and malicious prosecution (1)Contract, partnership, arbitration, IPR and environmental law (1)Judicial activism, minor's contract and negotiable instruments (1)Standard form contracts, RTI and agency law (1)IT Act, media trial and sale of goods (1)

A

Q1
50M 150w Compulsory discuss IPC, torts and criminal law doctrines

Answer the following in about 150 words each. Support your answers with relevant legal provisions and judicial pronouncements. 10×5=50 (a) Discuss the doctrine of 'Transferred Malice' as applied to law relating to culpable homicide under the Indian Penal Code, 1860. 10 (b) Discuss the nature and scope of right of Private defence of property along with limitations if any, on the exercise of such right. 10 (c) Illustrate the doctrine of 'constructive-criminality' with reference to law on Abetment. 10 (d) "He who acts through another, does the act himself." Discuss the tortious liability entailed in the above statement. 10 (e) Explain the various kinds of damages that a plaintiff can claim after a tort has been committed against him. 10

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित में से प्रत्येक का लगभग 150 शब्दों में उत्तर दीजिए। अपना उत्तर सुसंगत विधिक प्रावधानों और न्यायिक निर्णयों से समर्थित कीजिए। 10×5=50 (a) भारतीय दण्ड संहिता, 1860 के तहत सदोष मानवध से संबंधित विधि में लागू होने वाले 'स्थानांतरित विद्वेष' के सिद्धांत का विवेचन करें। 10 (b) सम्पत्ति की प्राइवेट प्रतिरक्षा के अधिकार के प्रयोग की प्रकृति एवं क्षेत्र-विस्तार के साथ सीमायें (मर्यादा), यदि कोई है तो, उनकी विवेचना कीजिए। 10 (c) दुष्प्रेरण-विधि के संदर्भ में 'आवयिक-अपराधिकता' के सिद्धांत को उदाहरण सहित समझाइए। 10 (d) "वह जो दूसरे के माध्यम से कार्य करता है, स्वयं कार्य करता है।" उपरोक्त कथन के अनुक्रम में अपकृत्यात्मक दायित्व की विवेचना कीजिए। 10 (e) एक वादी अपने ऊपर किये गये अपकृत्य के उपरान्त विभिन्न प्रकार की क्षतिपूर्ति (नुकसानी) का दावा कर सकता है, की व्याख्या कीजिए। 10

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (d) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (e) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Precise legal provisions, relevant case law with ratio, clear application to the specific question, and a balanced conclusion.

  • Define transferred malice (R v Saunders and Archer 1573)
  • IPC s.301 / BNS s.102: offence of same description as if intended victim killed
  • Effect on murder vs culpable homicide (ss.299-300 / BNS 100-101), incl. exceptions carrying over
  • Judicial application (Jagpal Singh 1991; Abdul Ise Suleman 1995) with illustration
  • Statutory basis IPC ss.96-106 / BNS ss.34-44; s.97 scope for own or others' property
  • Extent to cause death (s.103 / BNS 41) vs harm short of death (s.104 / BNS 42)
  • Duration of the right (s.105 / BNS 43)
  • Limitations under s.99 / BNS 37: public servant, recourse to authorities, no more harm than necessary
  • Define constructive criminality
  • Abetment basics: s.107 / BNS 45, s.108 Expln 2, s.109 / BNS 49
  • Constructive rules: s.111 / BNS 51 (different act, probable consequence), s.113 / BNS 53 (different effect), s.110 / BNS 50, s.112 / BNS 52
  • Illustrations from ss.111/113 and the nexus limit
  • Explain maxim qui facit per alium facit per se and vicarious liability rationale
  • Master-servant: course of employment (Limpus 1862; Century Insurance 1942) vs frolic (Joel v Morison)
  • Principal-agent (Lloyd v Grace Smith 1912), partners (Partnership Act s.26), ratification
  • Exceptions: independent contractors; State liability (Vidyawati 1962, Kasturi Lal 1965)
  • Define damages and restitutio in integrum
  • Nominal and contemptuous damages (Ashby v White)
  • Compensatory: general vs special; pecuniary vs non-pecuniary
  • Aggravated vs exemplary damages (Rookes v Barnard 1964 categories)
Q2
50M explain Criminal offences, negligence and atrocities law

(a) A twenty year old girl 'G' was coming back to home after attending college. A man 'M' held her, shut her mouth and dragged her to a nearby bush, where he slit the girl's throat thereby killing her. Thereafter he raped her. Decide what offence(s), if any, 'M' has committed in the above case. Explain the relevant statutory provisions in detail. 20 (b) "In Negligence, the chain of causation must remain intact." Describe the essentials of 'negligence' by referring case-laws. 15 (c) Define 'Atrocity'. Also discuss the acts that amount to 'atrocity' under the provisions of The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) एक बीस वर्षीय लड़की 'जी' कालेज के बाद घर आ रही थी। 'एम' एक आदमी ने उसे पकड़ लिया, उसका मुँह बन्द कर दिया एवं उसे पास की झाड़ी में घसीट लिया, जहाँ उसने लड़की का गला काट दिया जिससे वह लड़की मर गई। उसके बाद आदमी ने उसके साथ बलात्कार किया। उपरोक्त बाद में 'एम' ने क्या अपराध(धों) को, यदि कोई हो तो, कारित किया, तय करें। सुसंगत सांविधिक प्रावधानों की विस्तार में व्याख्या करें। 20 (b) "उपेक्षा में, कार्यकारण की श्रृंखला अक्षुण्ण (निरंतर) रहनी चाहिए।" वाद-विधियों के संदर्भ द्वारा 'उपेक्षा' के आवश्यक तत्त्वों का वर्णन कीजिए। 15 (c) 'अत्याचार' को परिभाषित करें। यह भी विवेचना करें कि अनुसूचित जाति और अनुसूचित जनजाति (अत्याचार निवारण) अधिनियम, 1989 के तहत कौनसे कार्य 'अत्याचार' की श्रेणी में आते हैं। 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule: statute or Article > Authority > Application and conclusion. (a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (c) define: precise definition > the distinguishing feature > one example Full marks: Precise statutory citations, case law references, and clear application to facts

  • Murder: s.302 r/w s.300 cl.1 (BNS 101, 103); intention shown by slitting throat; no exception applies
  • Abduction by force (s.362 / BNS 138) with s.364 (BNS 140(1)) or s.366 (BNS 87) depending on intent; wrongful confinement; s.354 (BNS 74)
  • Post-mortem sexual act: not rape under s.375 / BNS 63 (living woman, consent); s.376A inapplicable; Rangaraju (Karnataka HC 2023); s.297 / BNS 301 and legislative gap
  • Conclusion applying each provision to the sequence of acts
  • Duty of care: Donoghue v Stevenson (1932); Caparo (1990)
  • Breach: reasonable person (Blyth 1856; Bolton v Stone 1951); Bolam (1957) / Jacob Mathew (2005)
  • Causation: but-for (Barnett 1969), remoteness (Wagon Mound 1961), novus actus (Haynes v Harwood 1935; Knightley v Johns 1982)
  • Actual damage
  • Definition: s.2(1)(a) atrocity = offence punishable under s.3; perpetrator non-SC/ST
  • s.3(1) categories after 2015 Amendment: humiliation, land/livelihood, political rights, false cases, insult in public view, sexual acts, social exclusion/boycott
  • s.3(2) aggravated offences incl. IPC offences punishable with 10 years+ and false evidence
  • Judicial interpretation: public view and caste nexus (Swaran Singh 2008; Hitesh Verma 2020; Shajan Skaria 2024)
Q3
50M discuss IPC offences against women, consumer protection and torts

(a) Discuss the law relating to 'Assault or Criminal force' to woman with intent to 'Outrage her Modesty' and 'Sexual Harassment' as defined under Indian Penal Code, 1860. Is there any difference between the two ? Explain. 20 (b) Elaborate the reasons for including 'e-commerce' in Consumer Protection Act, 2019. Also discuss the consequences for not complying with the provisions of the Act by the e-commerce entities. 15 (c) Elucidate the essentials of 'Private Nuisance'. Also discuss the remedies available to a plaintiff in a suit for 'private nuisance'. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) भारतीय दण्ड विधान 1860 के अंतर्गत परिभाषित महिला पर उसकी 'लज्जा भंग' करने एवं 'यौन शोषण' करने के आशय से 'हमला या आपराधिक बल' से सम्बन्धित विधि की विवेचना कीजिए। क्या इन दोनों के मध्य कोई विभेद है ? व्याख्या कीजिए। 20 (b) उपभोक्ता संरक्षण अधिनियम 2019 में 'ई-कॉमर्स' को शामिल करने के कारणों को विस्तार से बतायें। साथ ही ई-कॉमर्स इकाइयों (संस्थाओं) द्वारा अधिनियम के प्रावधानों का पालन नहीं करने के परिणामों की विवेचना कीजिए। 15 (c) 'प्राइवेट उपताप' के आवश्यक तत्त्वों को बृहद् में समझाइए। 'प्राइवेट उपताप' के वाद में वादी को उपलब्ध उपचारों की भी विवेचना कीजिए। 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Precise statutory citations, clear distinctions, and relevant case law.

  • s.354 IPC / BNS 74 ingredients: woman, assault or criminal force, intent/knowledge to outrage modesty (Raju Pandurang Mahale 2004)
  • Meaning of modesty (Major Singh 1967) and intent as crux (Rupan Deol Bajaj 1995)
  • s.354A IPC / BNS 75 sexual harassment: four limbs, gender-specific, punishment
  • Differences: actus reus, mens rea, offender, gravity/bailability, protected interest; overlap
  • Reasons: online asymmetries, cross-border sellers, dark patterns, jurisdiction gaps under 1986 Act
  • CPA 2019 provisions: s.2(7) Explanation, s.2(16) e-commerce, s.34(2)(d), s.94, CCPA (s.10)
  • Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules 2020: marketplace vs inventory, grievance officer, disclosures, prohibitions
  • Consequences: CCPA ss.18-21, penalties ss.88, 89, 72; Commission remedies
  • Define private nuisance: unreasonable interference with use/enjoyment of land or rights
  • Essentials: interference, unreasonableness factors (locality, sensitivity, malice, duration), damage, plaintiff's interest in land
  • Relevant case law (Sturges v Bridgman 1879; Robinson v Kilvert 1889; Christie v Davey 1893; Indian HC cases)
  • Remedies: damages, injunction (temporary, perpetual, quia timet), abatement
Q4
50M examine Theft, corruption law and malicious prosecution

(a) "Dishonest Intention is the gist of the offence of Theft." Examine the above statement with the help of relevant illustrations. Also discuss how 'theft' is different from 'dishonest misappropriation of property.' 20 (b) Examine the term 'Undue-Advantage' as defined under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. Also discuss the persons authorised and the procedure required to be followed while investigating cases that are registered under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. 15 (c) Critically analyse with the help of decided cases, the essentials to be proved by a plaintiff in a suit for damages for 'Malicious Prosecution.' 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "बेईमानीपूर्ण आशय (इरादा) चोरी के अपराध का सार है।" उपर्युक्त कथन का उपयुक्त उदाहरणों की सहायता से परीक्षण कीजिए। 'चोरी' और 'बेईमानी से संपत्ति का दुर्विनियोग' के बीच अंतर की भी विवेचना करें। 20 (b) भ्रष्टाचार निवारण अधिनियम, 1988 के अंतर्गत परिभाषित 'अनुचित-लाभ' शब्दावली का परीक्षण कीजिये । साथ ही भ्रष्टाचार निवारण अधिनियम, 1988 के अंतर्गत पंजीकृत मामलों में अन्वेषण के दौरान अनुकरण करने में अपेक्षित प्रक्रिया एवं अधिकृत व्यक्तियों की भी विवेचना कीजिए । 15 (c) 'विद्वेषपूर्ण अभियोजन' के प्रतिकर (नुकसानी) के लिए किये गये वाद में वादी द्वारा साबित किये जाने वाले आवश्यक तत्त्वों की निर्णीत वाद-विधियों की सहायता से आलोचनात्मक विश्लेषण कीजिए । 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) examine: intro > how/why with reasoning > evidence > conclusion | (b) examine: intro > how/why with reasoning > evidence > conclusion | (c) analyse: intro > causes > effects > stakeholders/linkages > way forward Full marks: Precise legal definitions, relevant case law, clear application to the question, and balanced analysis.

  • Theft s.378 IPC / BNS 303 with all five ingredients
  • Dishonestly (s.24 / BNS 2(7)) and wrongful gain/loss (s.23); intention at time of moving
  • Illustrations and cases: owner theft, claim of right (Chandi Kumar Das 1965), temporary taking (K.N. Mehra 1957; Pyare Lal Bhargava 1963)
  • Distinguish s.403 / BNS 314: possession, timing of intent, actus reus, punishment; s.403 illustration (a)
  • Define undue advantage: s.2(d) PCA with Explanations (gratification, legal remuneration)
  • Offences using the term: ss.7, 7A, 8, 9, 11; presumption s.20
  • Persons authorised to investigate: s.17 ranks (Inspector DSPE, ACP metro, DSP elsewhere); SP order for s.13(1)(b)
  • Procedure: s.17A prior approval and trap proviso, s.19 sanction, Special Judge trial (ss.3-4)
  • Prosecution instituted by defendant (Mohamed Amin 1947 PC)
  • Termination in plaintiff's favour
  • Absence of reasonable and probable cause (Hicks v Faulkner 1881; Herniman v Smith 1938)
  • Malice and damage (Glinski v McIver 1962; Savile v Roberts 1698); critical analysis of the strict burden

B

Q5
50M 150w Compulsory critically examine Contract, partnership, arbitration, IPR and environmental law

Answer the following in about 150 words each. Support your answer with relevant legal provisions and judicial pronouncements. 10×5=50 (a) "The law of contract is not the whole law of agreements, nor is it the whole law of obligations. It is the law of those agreements which create obligations, and those obligations which have their source in agreement" — Salmond. Critically examine this statement. 10 (b) "At the suit of a partner, the court may dissolve a firm on certain grounds specified in the Indian Partnership Act, 1932. The right of a partner to ask for dissolution on any of the grounds mentioned in the Act cannot be excluded by any agreement to the contrary." Explain. 10 (c) "The parties cannot appeal against an arbitral award as to its merits. But, this does not mean that there is no check on the Arbitrator's conduct. Awards may also be challenged." Critically examine the above statement. 10 (d) "In India, there are different types of Intellectual Property rights, which are protected under different laws." Explain. 10 (e) What kind of cases are heard by the 'National-Green Tribunal' ? How is it different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) ? 10

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित में से प्रत्येक का लगभग 150 शब्दों में उत्तर दीजिए । अपना उत्तर सुसंगत विधिक प्रावधानों और न्यायिक निर्णयों से समर्थित कीजिए । 10×5=50 (a) "संविदा विधि न तो पूर्णतः करारों की विधि है, न ही यह पूर्णतः बाध्यताओं की विधि है । यह ऐसे करारों की वह विधि है जो बाध्यताएँ निर्मित करती हैं एवं उन बाध्यताओं को जिनके स्रोत करार में होते हैं" — सामंड । इस कथन का आलोचनात्मक परीक्षण कीजिए । 10 (b) "एक भागीदार के वाद पर भारतीय भागीदारी अधिनियम, 1932 में वर्णित कुछ आधारों पर न्यायालय एक फर्म का विघटन कर सकता है । अधिनियम में उल्लिखित आधारों को एक भागीदार के विघटन के अधिकार पर किसी विपरीत करार द्वारा अपवर्जित नहीं किया जा सकता है ।" व्याख्या कीजिए । 10 (c) "एक माध्यस्थम पंचाट के विरुद्ध पक्षकारों द्वारा उसके गुणागुण पर अपील नहीं की जा सकती है । परन्तु इसका यह अर्थ नहीं है कि माध्यस्थों के आचरण पर कोई नियन्त्रण नहीं है । पंचाटों पर भी चुनौती (आपत्ति) की जा सकती है ।" उपरोक्त कथन का आलोचनात्मक परीक्षण कीजिए । 10 (d) "भारत में, विभिन्न प्रकार के बौद्धिक सम्पदा अधिकार हैं, जो विभिन्न विधियों के अन्तर्गत संरक्षित हैं ।" व्याख्या कीजिए । 10 (e) 'राष्ट्रीय-हरित न्यायाधिकरण' किस तरह के मामलों की सुनवाई करता है ? यह केन्द्रीय प्रदूषण नियन्त्रण बोर्ड से किस प्रकार भिन्न है ? 10

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) critique: the claim > its strengths > its weaknesses > your judgment | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) critique: the claim > its strengths > its weaknesses > your judgment | (d) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (e) compare: paired headings or table > key differences > significance > conclusion Full marks: Precise statutory citations, clear distinction between concepts, and relevant case law.

  • Agreement vs contract: ss.2(e), 2(h), 10 ICA
  • Agreements not creating obligations (Balfour v Balfour; void agreements) and agreements operating in property/status
  • Obligations not from agreement: tort, trust, status, quasi-contract (ss.68-72)
  • Critical evaluation: imposed terms, promissory estoppel, standard forms
  • s.44 Partnership Act grounds (a)-(g) at the suit of a partner
  • Court's discretion; suit by partner other than the one at fault
  • Non-excludability: agreement barring suit void under s.28 ICA / public policy
  • Distinguish ss.40-43 modes of dissolution; arbitration permissible (Exception 1 to s.28)
  • Finality: ss.35-36; no appeal on merits; s.5 minimal intervention
  • Checks on arbitrator: ss.12-15 disclosure, Seventh Schedule, challenge, termination
  • s.34 grounds incl. public policy (post-2015 Explanations) and s.34(2A) patent illegality; time limit s.34(3)
  • Judicial trajectory and critical assessment (Saw Pipes, Associate Builders, Ssangyong, Hakeem, Gayatri Balasamy 2025)
  • Patents Act 1970 (20 years; s.3(d) Novartis; s.84)
  • Copyright Act 1957 (life+60; moral rights s.57)
  • Trade Marks Act 1999; Designs Act 2000; GI Act 1999
  • Sui generis: PPV&FR Act 2001, SICLD Act 2000, Biological Diversity Act 2002; administering authorities
  • NGT jurisdiction: s.14 original (substantial question, Schedule I Acts), s.15 relief, s.16 appeals, s.17 no-fault
  • NGT nature: quasi-judicial, s.19 procedure, s.20 principles, s.22 appeal to SC
  • CPCB: statutory regulator under Water Act s.3; standards, monitoring, coordination, directions (s.33A/31A)
  • Difference: adjudication vs regulation; NGT reviews Board decisions
Q6
50M explain Judicial activism, minor's contract and negotiable instruments

(a) "The Constitutional courts through their judicial activism have made substantial contribution in protecting women against exploitation, using Public Interest Litigation as a tool for securing their Constitutional rights." Explain with leading case laws. 20 (b) "A minor's contract being void, ordinarily it should be wholly devoid of all effects. If there is no contract, there should, indeed, be no contractual obligation on either side." Explain with case laws. 15 (c) "A 'bearer instrument' is transferable by simple delivery. An 'instrument payable to order' can be transferred by endorsement and delivery." Explain. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "महिलाओं के सांविधानिक अधिकारों को सुनिश्चित करने में जनहित वाद को एक उपकरण की तरह प्रयोग करते हुए सांविधानिक न्यायालयों ने न्यायिक सक्रियता से महिलाओं के विरुद्ध शोषण से सुरक्षित करने में महत्वपूर्ण योगदान किया है ।" निर्देशक (मुख्य)-वाद विधियों के साथ व्याख्या कीजिए । 20 (b) "एक अवयस्क की संविदा शून्य होने के कारण, सामान्यतया इसे सभी प्रभावों से मुक्त होना चाहिए । यदि कोई संविदा नहीं है, तो वास्तव में दोनों तरफ कोई संविदात्मक बाध्यता भी नहीं होनी चाहिए ।" वाद-विधियों के साथ व्याख्या कीजिए । 15 (c) "एक 'वाहक लिखत' सामान्य वितरण द्वारा अंतरणीय होता है। एक 'आदेशानुसार देय लिखत' को पृष्ठांकन अथवा वितरण द्वारा अंतरित किया जा सकता है।" व्याख्या कीजिये। 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Precise legal analysis with case ratios, statutory references, and clear application to the specific issues raised.

  • PIL evolution: relaxed locus standi, epistolary jurisdiction, continuing mandamus (S.P. Gupta 1981; PUDR 1982)
  • Leading cases with ratio across custody/trafficking, harassment/violence, marriage/personal law, equality (e.g. Sheela Barse 1983, Vishaka 1997, Chandrima Das 2000, Laxmi 2014, Independent Thought 2017, Joseph Shine 2018)
  • Link to constitutional provisions: Arts 14, 15(3), 21, 23, 39A and CEDAW
  • Critical appraisal: implementation gaps, overreach, reversals (Rajesh Sharma 2017)
  • s.11 ICA incompetence; Mohori Bibee (1903): void ab initio, no restitution under ss.64-65
  • No estoppel, no ratification, no specific performance
  • Exceptions: necessaries under s.68 (Nash v Inman 1908); minor as beneficiary/promisee
  • Equitable restitution (SRA 1963 ss.30, 33; Khan Gul 1928 vs Ajudhia Prasad 1937 / Leslie v Sheill)
  • Define bearer and order instruments (NI Act s.13 Explanations)
  • Bearer: negotiation by delivery (s.47); blank endorsement converts to bearer (s.54)
  • Order: negotiation by endorsement and delivery (ss.48, 15, 46); kinds of endorsement
  • Consequences: forged endorsement, holder in due course (ss.9, 53, 58), liability of endorser (s.35)
Q7
50M explain Standard form contracts, RTI and agency law

(a) "'Standard-contracts' contain a large number of terms and conditions in 'fine print' which restrict or often exclude liability under the contracts. The individuals can hardly bargain with the massive organisation." Explain the modes of protection which have been evolved by the courts. 20 (b) Describe the constitutional roots of 'Right to Information' in India. Refer to decided case laws. 15 (c) "The doctrine of 'Undisclosed Principal' comes into play when the agent neither disclosed the existence of his principal nor his representative character." In such cases discuss the rights and liabilities of the Principals, the agent and the third parties. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) "'मानक-संविदाओं' में बड़ी संख्या में निबंधन एवं शर्तें 'सुस्पष्ट' (Fine Print) होती हैं जो संविदा के अंतर्गत दायित्व को प्रतिबंधित या अक्सर बाहर कर देती हैं। व्यक्ति बड़े पैमाने पर संगठन (संस्थाओं) के साथ शायद ही सौदा कर सकते हैं।" न्यायालयों द्वारा प्रतिपादित सुरक्षा तरीकों की व्याख्या कीजिये। 20 (b) भारत में 'सूचना का अधिकार' के सांविधानिक आधार का वर्णन कीजिये। निर्णीत वादों का संदर्भ दें। 15 (c) "'अप्रकटित मालिक का सिद्धांत' तब प्रकाश में आता है जब अभिकर्ता न तो मालिक के अस्तित्व को प्रकट करता है, न ही उसके प्रतिनिधिक चरित्र को।" इस तरह के मामलों में मालिक अभिकर्ता एवं तीसरी पार्टी के अधिकार एवं दायित्वों की विवेचना कीजिये। 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule: statute or Article > Authority > Application and conclusion. (a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (c) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Precise legal analysis with correct case citations and clear application to the specific scenario.

  • Define standard-form contracts and the fine-print/exclusion clause problem
  • Incorporation rules: notice (Parker 1877), timing (Olley 1949), onerous terms/red hand (Thornton 1971), signature (L'Estrange; Curtis)
  • Construction rules: contra proferentem, main purpose, negligence exclusion, fundamental breach (Photo Production 1980)
  • Indian invalidity doctrines: s.23 unconscionability (Brojo Nath 1986), ss.151-152 (Lily White 1966), LIC v CERC (1995), CPA 2019 unfair contracts
  • Democratic roots: Raj Narain (1975) right to know
  • Art 19(1)(a): S.P. Gupta (1981); Cricket Association of Bengal (1995); UoI v ADR (2002); PUCL (2003)
  • Art 21: Reliance Petrochemicals (1988); Dinesh Trivedi (1997)
  • Limits under Art 19(2) and privacy; RTI Act 2005 as statutory implementation
  • Define undisclosed principal vs unnamed principal
  • Principal's rights and limits: s.231, actual authority, no ratification (Keighley Maxsted 1901), personal contracts (Said v Butt), subject to equities s.232
  • Third party's rights: s.231 same rights, right to withdraw before completion, s.233 option to hold agent or principal liable, s.234 estoppel
  • Agent's liability and rights: s.230 presumption, indemnity s.222, lien s.221
Q8
50M explain IT Act, media trial and sale of goods

(a) Under what circumstances, can an intermediary be held liable for third party-content hosted by them? Explain the liability of intermediaries in the light of the relevant legal provisions in IT Act and other contemporary developments. 20 (b) 'Media trials entail the possibility of subverting administration of justice.' In the light of this statement, analyse the report of Law Commission of India on Media Trial. 15 (c) "Though risk and property generally go together, the two are not inseparable. Sometimes risk may be in one party and property in another." Discuss the law relating to 'passing off risk' under the Sale of Goods Act, 1930. 15

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) तृतीय पक्ष-सामग्री उन्हीं द्वारा होस्ट (प्रस्तुत) करने का उत्तरदायी, किसी मध्यस्थ को, किन परिस्थितियों में ठहराया जा सकता है? सूचना प्रौद्योगिकी अधिनियम में सुसंगत विधिक उपबंधों और अन्य समकालीन विकासों (गतिविधियों) के प्रकाश में मध्यस्थों के उत्तरदायित्व की व्याख्या कीजिए। 20 (b) 'मीडिया-परीक्षणों में न्याय-प्रशासन को नष्ट करने की संभावना होती है । इस कथन के आलोक में, मीडिया परीक्षण पर भारत के विधि आयोग की रिपोर्ट का विश्लेषण कीजिये । 15 (c) "यद्यपि जोखिम और सम्पत्ति आमतौर पर एक साथ चलते हैं, दोनों अपृथक् (अविभाज्य) नहीं हैं । कभी-कभी जोखिम एक पार्टी में और सम्पत्ति दूसरे में हो सकती है ।" माल विक्रय अधिनियम, 1930 के अन्तर्गत 'जोखिम चला देना' से सम्बन्धित विधि की विवेचना कीजिये । 15

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Issue > Rule > Authority > Application. (a) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (b) analyse: intro > causes > effects > stakeholders/linkages > way forward | (c) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Precise statutory citations, case law, and clear application to the specific legal issues raised.

  • Define intermediary (s.2(1)(w)) and conditional safe harbour under s.79(1)-(2)
  • Circumstances of liability: s.79(3)(a) participation, s.79(3)(b) actual knowledge + inaction (Shreya Singhal 2015 reading), active role, failure of due diligence
  • IT Rules 2021: due diligence, 36-hour takedown, SSMI obligations, traceability; 2022-23 amendments
  • Contemporary developments: Kunal Kamra (2024) Fact Check Unit, X Corp/Sahyog, DPDP Act 2023, proposed Digital India Act
  • Define media trial and tension between Art 19(1)(a) and Art 21 fair trial
  • Law Commission 200th Report (2006): diagnosis and categories of prejudicial publications
  • Recommendations: pendency from arrest (amend s.3 Contempt of Courts Act), High Court postponement orders, training/self-regulation
  • Analysis: Sahara v SEBI (2012) postponement orders, implementation gaps, digital media
  • s.26 SGA: risk prima facie passes with property (res perit domino)
  • Separation by agreement (Sterns v Vickers 1923; Martineau v Kitching 1872)
  • Provisos: delay by fault (Demby Hamilton 1949), bailee duties
  • Sale on approval (s.24), transit (ss.39-40), FOB/CIF; perishing ss.7-8

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