(a) Suggest measures to overcome social conflicts and communal tensions using psychological principles. (10 marks) (b) Examine…

(a) Overcoming social conflict and communal tension (10 marks)

Measures should target the psychology of intergroup hostility. Sherif's Robbers Cave study showed that competition breeds conflict and that superordinate goals needing joint effort, such as disaster relief or common civic tasks, reduce it. Allport's contact hypothesis holds that contact lowers prejudice when groups have equal status, common goals, cooperation and institutional support; Pettigrew and Tropp's meta-analysis of over 500 studies confirmed this, and Aronson's jigsaw classroom applies it in schools. Gaertner and Dovidio's common ingroup identity model recasts "us and them" as a shared "we", ideally while keeping subgroup identity intact. Extended contact through friends' cross-group friendships, perspective-taking and empathy training, and counter-stereotypic role models weaken bias. Varshney's study of Indian cities found that everyday and associational links across communities, such as joint trade bodies, kept cities peaceful; mohalla peace committees and rumour control build on this. Finally, Osgood's GRIT, graduated and reciprocated conciliatory steps, de-escalates mistrust.

(b) Psychological consequences of excessive technology use (10 marks)

Excessive use affects several domains. Cognitively, constant notifications and media multitasking fragment attention, weaken deep reading and memory consolidation, and encourage reliance on devices as external memory (the "Google effect"). Emotionally, heavy social-media use is linked to anxiety, low mood, fear of missing out and unfavourable social comparison; late-night screen use disturbs sleep, which worsens mood and concentration. Socially, it can produce loneliness despite constant connection, "phubbing", cyberbullying, echo chambers and polarisation. Behaviourally, variable-ratio rewards (likes, scrolls, loot boxes) sustain compulsive checking; gaming disorder is recognised in ICD-11, and nomophobia and problematic smartphone use are widely studied. Children face effects on attention, language and physical activity. The evidence on average effects is mixed and modest, with vulnerable users affected most, so remedies are digital literacy, screen-time limits, digital detox, and offline activity and support.

(c) What drives radicalisation towards extremism and terrorism (10 marks)

No single profile or cause exists; radicalisation is a process in which individual, group and social factors interact. Grievance and relative deprivation, injustice, humiliation and identity threat create vulnerability. Kruglanski's 3N model shows the quest for significance (need), an ideological justification (narrative) and a group that rewards commitment (network). Moghaddam's staircase describes narrowing perception of options, moral disengagement and finally acceptance of violence. Social identity and uncertainty-identity theories explain how insecure people attach to strong groups; group polarisation and isolation from moderating views push positions to extremes; dehumanisation and Bandura's moral disengagement make harming outsiders possible. Recruiters exploit personal crises, peer bonds and kinship networks, and online echo chambers speed the process. McCauley and Moskalenko separate opinion radicalisation from action radicalisation, since most who hold extreme beliefs do not act. Prevention therefore combines grievance redress, counter-narratives and deradicalisation programmes.

(d) Psychological education and sensitivity to gender diversity (10 marks)

Psychological education can change how people think and feel about gender. It explains that gender is learned through social learning and gender schema (Bem), so stereotypes are not natural; it exposes implicit bias and stereotype threat and teaches perspective-taking and empathy. Distinguishing sex, gender identity, expression and orientation removes myths, with evidence that variations are natural and not disorders. Contact with diverse individuals, role-play and reflective discussion reduce prejudice, following the contact hypothesis. Teacher and counsellor training in affirmative practice supports students who face bullying and stigma. In India, NALSA v. Union of India (2014) recognised transgender persons as a third gender, Navtej Singh Johar (2018) decriminalised consensual same-sex conduct and the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 addresses rights; education should link these to real life. Inclusive curricula and language, anti-bullying policy and gender-neutral facilities complete the effort.

(e) Women entrepreneurship: key aspects and government initiatives (10 marks)

Key aspects: a women's enterprise is one owned and controlled by women, with at least 51% of capital under the MSME framework. Psychologically, achievement motivation (McClelland), self-efficacy (Bandura), internal locus of control, risk-taking and resilience drive success, with push motives (need for income) and pull motives (independence). Barriers include limited finance and collateral, restricted mobility and networks, work-family conflict, gender stereotypes and fear of failure. Government initiatives: Mudra loans (2015), most of whose borrowers are women; Stand-Up India (2016), bank loans of ₹10 lakh-₹1 crore to at least one woman and one SC/ST borrower per branch; PMEGP with a higher subsidy for women; TREAD (1998) for training and credit support; Mahila e-Haat, a web marketing platform; NITI Aayog's Women Entrepreneurship Platform (2018); DAY-NRLM self-help groups and the Lakhpati Didi drive; and CGTMSE collateral-free credit guarantees.