(a) Abraham Maslow propounded the theory of needs, which identified the basic needs that human beings have in order of their importance. McClelland believes that we all have three motivators, and individuals with different motivators exhibit distinct

Question

(a) Abraham Maslow propounded the theory of needs, which identified the basic needs that human beings have in order of their importance. McClelland believes that we all have three motivators, and individuals with different motivators exhibit distinct characteristics. Critically examine. (20 marks)

(b) Examine the tension between the functional efficiency of delegated legislation and the risks it poses to accountability and the rule of law. (15 marks)

(c) Hierarchical structures do not align with the modern business world. Discuss the different forms of structuring modern organisations. (15 marks)

UPSC Answer Check · Accepted Answer

(a) Maslow's Need Hierarchy and McClelland's Three Motives
Abraham Maslow’s A Theory of Human Motivation (1943) and Motivation and Personality (1954) posit a prepotent hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualisation. According to Maslow, a lower need must be substantially satisfied before a higher one becomes a motivator. David McClelland’s The Achieving Society (1961) offers a contrasting framework of three learned, non-hierarchical motives: achievement (nAch), affiliation (nAff), and power (nPow). Individuals high in nAch prefer moderate risks and immediate feedback; those high in nAff seek social harmony; and those high in nPow seek influence, distinguished by "personalised" (self-serving) versus "socialised" (organizational) power. Measured via the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), these motives show distinct characteristics; McClelland and Burnham (1976) identified the "leadership motive pattern" as high socialised power, moderate achievement, and low affiliation.

A critical comparison reveals Maslow’s model as innate and hierarchical, whereas McClelland’s is learned and independent. Empirically, Wahba and Bridwell (1976) found weak support for Maslow’s prepotency, and Alderfer’s ERG theory (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) introduced "frustration-regression," suggesting that blocked higher needs cause a return to lower ones. McClelland’s macro-claim linking national achievement motivation to economic growth is contested, and the Kakinada experiment (McClelland and Winter, 1969) yielded mixed results on the efficacy of motive training. Furthermore, the TAT is criticised for scorer dependence, and Geert Hofstede showed that Maslow's ordering reflects American individualism - in collectivist cultures security and belonging may rank above self-actualisation. Maslow himself later added "self-transcendence" above self-actualisation (1969). In public administration, Maslow informs job design and welfare, while McClelland guides selection and motive-job matching. Both are "content" theories that require "process" theories (e.g., Vroom’s expectancy, Adams’s equity) to fully explain behaviour.

(b) Delegated Legislation: Efficiency versus Accountability and Rule of Law
Delegated legislation is a functional necessity in modern governance, allowing the executive to handle technical details and respond to emergencies with the speed that a legislature cannot. However, this creates a profound tension between administrative efficiency and the rule of law. Lord Hewart, in The New Despotism (1929), warned that the growth of delegated powers was a threat to liberty, a concern echoed by the Donoughmore Committee (1932). The primary risk is the "Henry VIII clause," which allows the executive to amend or repeal primary legislation, effectively bypassing parliamentary scrutiny.

The tension is managed through legal and procedural controls. The "essential legislative function" doctrine, established in In re Delhi Laws Act (1951), holds that while policy-making cannot be delegated, subsidiary rule-making can; delegation is valid only if the parent Act lays down a policy and guidelines (Gwalior Rayon, 1974). Indian statutes' "removal of difficulties" clauses are the local form of the Henry VIII clause, which courts have confined to giving effect to the Act without altering its essentials. Courts exercise judicial review to strike down rules that are ultra vires (substantively or procedurally), and the Harla v State of Rajasthan (1951) case mandates that unpublished rules are invalid. Parliamentary controls include the "laying" procedure—simple, negative, or affirmative resolution—and scrutiny by the Committees on Subordinate Legislation of the Lok Sabha (1953) and the Rajya Sabha (1964). In the UK, the Statutory Instruments Act 1946 and the Joint Committee on Statutory Instruments further regulate this process.

Despite these controls, the tension persists. Laying is often a formality, scrutiny committees are frequently under-resourced, and delays in framing rules can stall laws for years - the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 waited until March 2024 for its rules, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 until November 2025. To manage the risk to accountability, modern reforms include mandatory pre-legislative consultation, regulatory impact assessments, "sunset clauses" (automatic expiry of rules), and the creation of searchable rule databases to ensure transparency.

(c) Forms of Structuring Modern Organisations
The traditional hierarchical structure, characterised by narrow spans of control and rigid chains of command, is increasingly misaligned with the modern business environment, which demands speed, innovation, and knowledge-work flexibility. However, this critique must be qualified: hierarchy remains essential in contexts requiring strict accountability, safety, and scale, such as the armed forces or revenue administration.

To address the limitations of hierarchy, several post-bureaucratic forms have emerged:
Matrix Structure: This form uses dual reporting, where employees report to both a functional manager and a project manager, facilitating the sharing of scarce expertise.
Flat/Delayered Structure: By increasing the span of control and removing middle-management layers, organisations reduce bureaucracy and accelerate decision-making.
Project and Self-Managed Teams: These structures organise work around specific tasks or goals, with teams having the autonomy to manage their own processes.
Network and Virtual Organisations: These "boundaryless" entities (a term popularised by Jack Welch) outsource non-core functions to external partners, maintaining a small core while scaling through a network.
The Shamrock Organisation: Charles Handy (1989) described a three-part structure: a professional core of permanent staff, a contractual fringe of outside specialists and contractors, and a flexible labour force of part-time and temporary workers.
Adhocracy and Holacracy: Mintzberg’s "adhocracy" (1979) - a term popularised by Alvin Toffler (Future Shock, 1970) after Warren Bennis forecast the decline of bureaucracy - is a professional, flexible structure for complex tasks, while "holacracy" (developed by Brian Robertson and adopted by Zappos) replaces formal hierarchy with self-organising circles. Related variants include Spotify's "squads and tribes" and Haier's network of self-governing micro-enterprises.

Governments use similar forms: mission-mode programmes, empowered groups of secretaries, and special purpose vehicles such as the Smart City SPVs cut across departmental hierarchies, while task forces and inter-ministerial teams (as during the COVID-19 response) function as temporary adhocracies.

Ultimately, the "real" answer is contingency-based hybridity; while overt hierarchy may decline, covert hierarchies often persist within these "flat" structures to ensure coordination and accountability.

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