Geology

UPSC Geology 2025 — Paper II

All 8 questions from UPSC Civil Services Mains Geology 2025 Paper II (400 marks total). Every stem reproduced in full, with directive-word analysis, marks, word limits, and answer-approach pointers.

8Questions
400Total marks
2025Year
Paper IIPaper

Topics covered

Crystallography, mineralogy, petrology and metamorphism (1)Crystallography, pyroxene minerals and silicate classification (1)Migmatites, phase diagrams and granite petrogenesis (1)Sedimentary structures, facies models and conglomerates (1)Economic geology, geophysical exploration and meteorites (1)Economic geology of Pb-Zn, petroleum basins and VMS deposits (1)Geochemical prospecting, geobotany and reserve estimation (1)Mineralogy, radioactive waste disposal and environmental geology (1)

A

Q1
50M 150w Compulsory describe Crystallography, mineralogy, petrology and metamorphism

Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (a) Describe the symmetry elements shown by the normal class of the orthorhombic system. What are the different forms for this class? Draw the sketch stereogram of the form {h k l}. Give examples of two minerals that crystallize in this system. (10 marks) (b) Discuss in brief the characteristic optical properties of hornblende and augite under petrological microscope. (10 marks) (c) Draw a neat labelled diagram for perthite texture. Explain the formation of perthite with the help of a suitable phase diagram. (10 marks) (d) With the help of diagrams, describe the various diagenetic textures of carbonate rocks. (10 marks) (e) Describe ultrahigh-pressure and ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism. (10 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित में से प्रत्येक प्रश्न का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए : (a) विषमलम्बाक्ष समुदाय के सामान्य वर्ग में विद्यमान सममिति तत्त्वों का वर्णन कीजिए। इस वर्ग में विभिन्न रूप क्या हैं? एक विविम प्रक्षेप (स्टीरियोग्राफिक प्रोजेक्शन) आरेख पर {h k l} स्वरूप को आलेखित कीजिए। दो खनिजों के उदाहरण दीजिए जिनका क्रिस्टलीकरण इस समुदाय में होता है। (10 अंक) (b) हॉर्नब्लेंड और अगाइट के शैलविज्ञान सूक्ष्मदर्शी प्रकाशीय लक्षणात्मक गुणों की संक्षेप में विवेचना कीजिए। (10 अंक) (c) परथिटिक गठन का स्वच्छ नामांकित चित्र अंकित कीजिए। समुचित फेज आरेख की सहायता से परथाइट बनने की प्रक्रिया समझाइए। (10 अंक) (d) कार्बोनेट शैलों के विभिन्न प्रसंयाती गठनों का सचित्र वर्णन कीजिए। (10 अंक) (e) अतिउच्च-दाबीय एवं अतिउच्च-तापीय कायांतरण का वर्णन कीजिए। (10 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology, Paper 2. (a) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (d) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (e) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Precise, well-structured answers with correct diagrams and Indian examples.

  • Class 2/m 2/m 2/m (mmm) identified as holosymmetric (holohedral); 3L2, 3P, C
  • Axes a≠b≠c mutually perpendicular; forms: 3 pinacoids, 3 rhombic prisms {0kl},{h0l},{hk0}, rhombic dipyramid {hkl} (no domes in mmm)
  • Stereogram of {hkl}: 8 faces; lower poles directly beneath upper (horizontal mirror) → 4 dot-in-circle positions; figure provided
  • Two orthorhombic minerals: olivine, andalusite (also barite, topaz)
  • Hornblende (amphibole): moderate relief; 56°/124° cleavages; inclined extinction ~10–25°; strong green–brown pleochroism
  • Augite (clinopyroxene): high relief; 87°/93° cleavages; large inclined extinction (Z∧c≈45°)
  • Pleochroism weak/absent in augite — colourless in PPL
  • Diagnostic contrast (relief, extinction angle, pleochroism) for identification in igneous/metamorphic rocks
Q2
50M describe Crystallography, pyroxene minerals and silicate classification

(a) Give a detailed account related to the classification of crystals into different crystallographic systems based on symmetry elements. (15 marks) (b) Describe the structure of the pyroxene group of minerals with suitable diagrams. Discuss the chemical compositions and optical properties of orthopyroxene. (15 marks) (c) Describe the structural classification of silicates with neat sketches. Give one example for each type. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) सममिति तत्त्वों के आधार पर विभिन्न क्रिस्टलीय प्रणालियों में क्रिस्टलों के वर्गीकरण का विस्तृत वर्णन कीजिए। (15 अंक) (b) पाइरोक्सीन समुदाय के खनिजों की संरचना का उपयुक्त चित्र सहित वर्णन कीजिए। ऑर्थोपाइरोक्सीन के रासायनिक संघटन और प्रकाशीय गुणों की विवेचना कीजिए। (15 अंक) (c) सिलिकेट के संरचनात्मक वर्गीकरण का सुस्पष्ट चित्र सहित वर्णन कीजिए। प्रत्येक प्रकार का एक उदाहरण दीजिए। (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) account for: state the phenomenon > the causes in order of weight > conclusion | (b) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (c) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Complete classification with all symmetry elements, accurate pyroxene structure with optical data, all 6 silicate types with sketches and examples.

  • Seven crystallographic systems listed with their symmetry elements (cubic 4×3-fold; tetragonal 1×4-fold; hexagonal 1×6-fold; trigonal 1×3-fold; orthorhombic 3×2-fold; monoclinic 1×2-fold; triclinic ≤inversion centre)
  • Axial parameters and angle relationships for each system; ordered from highest to lowest symmetry
  • Hermann-Mauguin notation and holosymmetric classes (e.g., 4/m -3 2/m cubic, -3 2/m trigonal); 32 classes, 14 Bravais lattices
  • Holohedral vs hemihedral (enantiomorphic pairs) distinction
  • Pyroxenes as inosilicates with (SiO3)n single chains; corner-sharing tetrahedra parallel to c-axis; M1/M2 octahedral sites
  • Cleavage ≈87°/93° vs amphibole double chains (Si4O11)6− with 56°/124°; structure diagram provided
  • Orthopyroxene: enstatite–ferrosilite (MgSiO3–FeSiO3) solid solution with minor Ca, Mn, Al
  • Optical properties: pleochroism (hypersthene pink–green); birefringence values; optic sign/2V vary with composition (enstatite +, hypersthene −); straight extinction; Indian charnockite occurrences
Q3
50M describe Migmatites, phase diagrams and granite petrogenesis

(a) What are migmatites? Describe the important types of migmatites and the processes of their formation. (15 marks) (b) Draw a neat labelled sketch for the albite-anorthite phase diagram (1 atm, dry). Trace the course of crystallization of an initial melt Ab₂₀-An₈₀ within this system. How can you interpret zoning in plagioclase with this system? (15 marks) (c) (i) Briefly write on the characteristics of I, S, M and A type granites. Elucidate the petrographic and petrogenetic attributes for each type. (12 marks) (ii) Write a brief account on the Deccan Flood Basalt Volcanism in India. (8 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) मिग्मेटाइट क्या होते हैं? मिग्मेटाइट के महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रकारों तथा उनके बनने की प्रक्रियाओं का वर्णन कीजिए। (15 अंक) (b) स्वच्छ नामांकित आरेख की सहायता से एल्बाइट-एनॉर्थाइट का कल्पित चित्र (1 वायुमंडलीय दाब, शुष्क) दर्शाइए। एक प्रारंभिक गलित जिसमें Ab₂₀-An₈₀ है, उसके क्रिस्टलीभवन पथ का इस पद्धति में अनुरेखण कीजिए। इस पद्धति में प्लेजियोक्लेज के मंडलन की व्याख्या कैसे की जा सकती है? (15 अंक) (c) (i) I, S, M और A प्रकार के ग्रेनाइट की विशेषताओं को संक्षेप में लिखिए। प्रत्येक की पेट्रोग्राफिक व पेट्रोजेनेटिक विशेषताओं पर प्रकाश डालिए। (12 अंक) (ii) भारत के डेक्कन फ्लड बेसाल्ट ज्वालामुखी-क्रिया का संक्षिप्त विवरण लिखिए। (8 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance | (b) trace: start point > the stages in sequence > end point > what changed | (c(i)) write short notes: define > 3-4 key features > one example > one-line significance | (c(ii)) account for: state the phenomenon > the causes in order of weight > conclusion Full marks: Comprehensive, accurate, and well-structured answers with specific examples and diagrams.

  • Migmatite defined as partially melted mixed rock; leucosome / melanosome / neosome / paleosome distinguished
  • Main types: metatexite and diatexite/nebulitic (Sawyer); Mehnert's morphological types (agmatic, stromatic, ophthalmic, dictyonitic, schlieric, nebulitic)
  • Formation: partial melting (anatexis) of metapelite/paragneiss/amphibolite; metamorphic differentiation, melt segregation, metasomatism
  • Indian examples (BGC Bhilwara, Peninsular Gneiss, Chotanagpur, Southern Granulite Terrain); grading from low-melt to high-melt types
  • Labelled Ab–An phase diagram (dry, 1 atm) provided; x-axis Ab100→An100; end-member melting points 1118 °C (Ab) and 1553 °C (An)
  • Liquidus and solidus curves identified; continuous solid solution (no eutectic/minimum)
  • Crystallization path for Ab20-An80 melt: first plagioclase more calcic (~An90–An95); liquid moves toward Ab; equilibrium vs fractional behaviour
  • Lever rule application; interpretation of zoning (normal vs reverse; preservation vs diffusion)
Q4
50M discuss Sedimentary structures, facies models and conglomerates

(a) Discuss the genesis of any four sedimentary structures which are helpful in palaeocurrent analysis. How are the palaeocurrent patterns helpful in establishing the depositional environment? (20 marks) (b) Discuss the concept of facies model and give a brief account of deltaic facies model. (15 marks) (c) What are conglomerates? Describe their fabrics, classification and geological significance. (15 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) पुरातरंग विश्लेषण में उपयोगी किन्हीं चार अवसादी संरचनाओं की उत्पत्ति का वर्णन कीजिए। निक्षेपण पर्यावरण स्थापित करने में पुरातरंग प्रतिरूप किस प्रकार सहायक होते हैं? (20 अंक) (b) संलक्षणी (फेसीज) मॉडल की संकल्पना की विवेचना कीजिए तथा डेल्टा संलक्षणी मॉडल का संक्षिप्त वर्णन कीजिए। (15 अंक) (c) संगुटिकाश्म क्या होते हैं? उनके संविन्यास, वर्गीकरण एवं भूवैज्ञानिक महत्व का वर्णन कीजिए। (15 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) describe: define > structure or process in order > labelled diagram > significance Full marks: Precise definitions, clear sketches, named Indian examples, and strong causal links between structures and environments.

  • Four structures with genesis: ripple marks (stoss/slip-face vector), cross-bedding (foreset dip downstream)
  • Flute casts (head upstream, tail downstream); clast imbrication (ab-plane dips upstream); parting lineation noted
  • Measurement and plotting as rose diagrams and mean resultant vectors
  • Palaeocurrent patterns and environments: unimodal fluvial/turbidite; bimodal/herringbone tidal; eolian and shallow-marine variability
  • Facies model concept defined (lithofacies, grain size, structures, facies associations, vertical successions)
  • Uses: correlation, reservoir/trap identification, basin evolution; Walther's Law link
  • Deltaic model: delta plain/front/prodelta; Galloway river-, wave-, tide-dominated; Gilbert-type (coarse, lacustrine/fan delta) vs bird-foot (Mississippi)
  • Coarsening-upward progradational profiles; Indian examples (K–G, Mahanadi, Ganga–Brahmaputra, Bhuj Formation)

B

Q5
50M 150w Compulsory discuss Economic geology, geophysical exploration and meteorites

Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (a) What do you understand by metallogenic epochs and provinces? Discuss any two major metallogenies in India. (10 marks) (b) Discuss the mode of occurrence, origin and distribution of gold deposits in India. (10 marks) (c) What do you understand by 'pathfinder' elements? What are the elements/ions used in the prospecting of sulphides of epigenetic origin, porphyry copper deposit and sulphide deposits in general? (10 marks) (d) Define gravitation. What are the corrections necessary to obtain the absolute value of gravity (g) while using gravity method in mineral exploration? (10 marks) (e) What are the major components of chondrites? Discuss the mineralogical and textural features, and significance of chondrites. (10 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

निम्नलिखित में से प्रत्येक प्रश्न का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए : (a) धातुजननिक युग व प्रान्तों से आप क्या समझते हैं? भारत के किन्हीं दो प्रमुख धातुजनन की विवेचना कीजिए। (10 अंक) (b) भारत के स्वर्ण भण्डारों की उपस्थिति शैली, उत्पत्ति एवं वितरण पर चर्चा कीजिए। (10 अंक) (c) 'खोजीय' तत्वों से आप क्या समझते हैं? कौन-से तत्व/आयन पश्चजनित सल्फाइड, पोरफिरी ताम्र निक्षेप और गन्धकीय निक्षेपों को खोजने में सहायक होते हैं? (10 अंक) (d) गुरुत्वाकर्षण को परिभाषित कीजिए। खनिज अन्वेषण में गुरुत्वाकर्षीय विधि में कौन-से सुधार आवश्यक होते हैं जिनसे गुरुत्व (g) का परिशुद्ध मान प्राप्त किया जा सके? (10 अंक) (e) कोंड्राइटों के प्रमुख अवयव कौन-से हैं? कोंड्राइटों के खनिजीय व गठनीय अभिलक्षणों की चर्चा करते हुए उनके महत्व पर प्रकाश डालिए। (10 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (d) define: precise definition > the distinguishing feature > one example | (e) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close Full marks: Precise definitions, specific Indian examples, correct terminology, clear structure

  • Metallogenic epoch and province defined (time-bound style vs spatially restricted concentration)
  • Two Indian metallogenies: Dharwar Craton (gold–iron–manganese; greenstone belts, BIF)
  • Singhbhum Craton (copper–uranium–iron; Proterozoic basins, shear zones, hydrothermal activity)
  • Epoch–province link with examples (late Archaean gold, Archaean BIF, Proterozoic Aravalli–Delhi Pb–Zn)
  • Modes of occurrence: lode (quartz veins/shear zones) and placer (alluvial/eluvial)
  • Kolar and Hutti as classic lode localities in Archaean greenstone belts (quartz, pyrite, arsenopyrite, carbonate association)
  • Hutti (producing orogenic lode); Kolar (closed 2001); other lodes (Ramagiri, Lawa, Bhukia)
  • Placers (Subarnarekha, Nilambur); orogenic origin (metamorphic H2O–CO2 fluids, bisulphide transport); distribution Karnataka/AP/Jharkhand/Rajasthan
Q6
50M discuss Economic geology of Pb-Zn, petroleum basins and VMS deposits

(a) Give an account of geology, mode of occurrence, genesis and distribution of Pb-Zn deposits of Aravalli region. (15 marks) (b) Give the distribution of petroliferous basins of India. Discuss the geology of Cambay Basin. (15 marks) (c) Give a brief account on the volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposit. Cite suitable Indian examples. (20 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) अरावली क्षेत्र में पाए जाने वाले सीसा-जस्ता (Pb-Zn) भंडारों के भूविज्ञान, उपस्थिति शैली, उत्पत्ति तथा वितरण का वर्णन कीजिए। (15 अंक) (b) भारत के पेट्रोलियमधारित क्रोड़ियों का वितरण बताइए। खम्भात (कैम्बे) क्रोड़ी के भूविज्ञान पर चर्चा कीजिए। (15 अंक) (c) ज्वालामुखीय स्थूल सल्फाइड (वी० एम० एस०) निक्षेप का एक संक्षिप्त विवरण दीजिए। भारत से समुचित उदाहरण उद्धृत कीजिए। (20 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

(a) account for: state the phenomenon > the causes in order of weight > conclusion | (b) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (c) account for: state the phenomenon > the causes in order of weight > conclusion Full marks: Precise, specific, and well-structured answers with named examples and diagrams.

  • Aravalli Pb-Zn province as Proterozoic sediment-hosted belt; stratiform/semi-stratiform in Aravalli and Bhilwara Supergroup metasediments
  • Controls: dolomite/calc-silicate horizons, graphitic schists, folded/faulted contacts
  • Type examples: Rampura-Agucha, Rajpura-Dariba-Bethumni, Sindesar Khurd (Bhilwara SG); Zawar (Aravalli SG); Palaeoproterozoic hosts
  • Genesis debate: syngenetic-diagenetic (basinal brines/seawater) vs epigenetic remobilisation; mixed history; distribution in southern Aravalli (Rajasthan as principal Zn-Pb province)
  • Distribution of petroliferous basins (Assam-Arakan, Kutch, Saurashtra, Cambay, Rajasthan, Mahanadi, KG, Cauvery, Ganga, Vindhyan, Bengal, Jaisalmer; offshore Mumbai High, KG, Cauvery)
  • Category I/II listing consistent with the answer
  • Cambay Basin: latest Cretaceous–Tertiary rift on Deccan basement along NNW–SSE Dharwar trend; transverse-fault blocks; Palaeocene Olpad
  • Early Eocene Cambay Shale source; Kalol/Hazad–Ankleshwar reservoirs; fault-block/anticlinal/stratigraphic traps; fields (Ankleshwar, Kalol, Gandhar)
Q7
50M discuss Geochemical prospecting, geobotany and reserve estimation

(a) Discuss the direct and indirect geochemical methods used for prospecting of hydrocarbon deposits. (20 marks) (b) What are the physiological and morphological changes of the plants helpful in geobotanical prospecting of copper, manganese and uranium deposits? Add a note on commonly found plant indicators for zinc. (15 marks) (c) What do you understand by 'tonnage factor'? Discuss the geometric and graphic methods used in reserve calculation. (15 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) हाइड्रोकार्बन निक्षेपों के अन्वेषण में प्रयुक्त प्रत्यक्ष और अप्रत्यक्ष भूरसायनिक विधियों की विवेचना कीजिए। (20 अंक) (b) तांबा, मैंगनीज व युरेनियम निक्षेपों के भूवनस्पतिकीय अन्वेषण में पादपों के कौन-से कार्यिकीय एवं आकारिकीय बदलाव मददगार होते हैं? जस्ते के आमतौर पर मिलने वाले सूचक पादपों पर एक टिप्पणी लिखिए। (15 अंक) (c) 'टनेज फैक्टर' से आप क्या समझते हैं? भंडारों के संगणन में प्रयुक्त होने वाली ज्यामितिक व लेखाचित्रीय विधियों की विवेचना कीजिए। (15 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology, Paper 2. (a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close Full marks: Comprehensive, accurate, with specific Indian examples and clear diagrams.

  • Microseepage principle; direct methods (free soil gas with C1/(C2+C3) ratios; acid extraction; seeps/UV fluorescence; MPOG)
  • ONGC applications: Cambay Basin, Assam-Arakan fold belt, KG onland
  • Indirect methods: Eh/pH changes; iodine, vanadium, uranium halos
  • Radiometric K and U lows relative to Th; red-bed bleaching, delta-C; pyrite/greigite/magnetite → magnetic and conductivity anomalies
  • Cu: interveinal chlorosis, stunted growth, leaf-size reduction, root truncation; Aeolanthus biformifolius, Becium homblei; Polycarpaea corymbosa (India)
  • Mn: chlorophyll disruption, auxin oxidase, crinkled leaves, marginal necrosis; Macadamia neurophylla hyperaccumulator
  • U: chromosomal mutation, dwarfing, chlorosis, root malformation; Astragalus pattersoni (Se association), bryophytes/lichens
  • Zn indicators: Viola calaminaria, Thlaspi (Noccaea) caerulescens
Q8
50M discuss Mineralogy, radioactive waste disposal and environmental geology

(a) What do you understand by isomorphism and polymorphism? Discuss monotropy by citing example of diamond and graphite. (20 marks) (b) What are the most important conditions necessary for safe disposal of radioactive waste in geological repositories? Add a note on the concept of multiple barriers to protect biosphere and hydrosphere. (Give suitable diagrams wherever necessary.) (15 marks) (c) What are the major environmental considerations while treating with the disseminated precious metal mine waste? (15 marks)

हिंदी में पढ़ें

(a) समरूपता व बहुरूपता से आप क्या समझते हैं? हीरा एवं ग्रेफाइट का उदाहरण देते हुए मोनोट्रॉपी की विवेचना कीजिए। (20 अंक) (b) रेडियोधर्मी कचरे के भूवैज्ञानिकीय निक्षेपागारों में सुरक्षित निस्तारण हेतु कौन-सी अति महत्वपूर्ण परिस्थितियाँ जरूरी होती हैं? बायोस्फीयर व हाइड्रोस्फीयर को बचाने के लिए बहुरोधकों के सिद्धांत पर एक टिप्पणी लिखिए। (जहाँ आवश्यक हो उपयुक्त चित्र दीजिए।) (15 अंक) (c) प्रकीर्ण कीमती धातु की खान के निस्तारित कचरे के उपचार के समय पर्यावरण-संबंधी कौन-से मुख्य विचारणीय विषय होते हैं? (15 अंक)

Answer approach & key points

Framework: Geology Paper 2: Define > Process > Field/Petrographic Evidence > Indian Example. (a) discuss: intro > 3-4 dimensions > example > balanced close | (b) explain: definition/context > points in order > small example > short close | (c) highlight: name the salient points > one line of substance each > close Full marks: Precise definitions, clear diagrams, specific examples, and strong causal links.

  • Isomorphism defined (same structure, different composition; calcite–rhodochrosite example)
  • Polymorphism defined (same composition, different structures; diamond–graphite, quartz polymorphs)
  • Monotropy vs enantiotropy (α–β quartz reversible); diamond→graphite irreversible, graphite stable at all T at 1 atm; ΔG–T relations
  • Structure/bonding/density contrast (sp3 3.51 g/cm3 vs sp2 2.26 g/cm3); kinetic barrier preserves diamond
  • Site conditions: deep stable host rock (granite/salt/clay), low permeability/groundwater, tectonically quiet, no exploitable resources
  • Long-term reducing groundwater chemistry; radiolytic oxidizing front; thermal limits on buffer
  • Multiple-barrier concept: engineered (waste matrix, canister, buffer, backfill) + natural (host rock, geosphere); KBS-3 style
  • Protection of biosphere/hydrosphere; diagram provided; India's closed fuel cycle (vitrified HLW, interim storage, granite studies), AERB

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