UPSC Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science 2026 — Paper II

(a) A compact anatomical note that must do two things: name and locate the paranasal sinuses of the ox (frontal with its diverticula, maxillary, palatine, lacrimal, sphenoid, conchal) and state their functions. Clinical relevance (dehorning, sinusitis, trephination) earns the applied marks. (b) Explain how electron microscopy is USED in histology and cytology — principle and resolving power, the TEM/SEM distinction, specimen preparation, and the specific structures and diagnoses it makes possible. A pure description of the instrument without applications does not meet the demand. (c) Define autacoids and give a systematic classification with named examples in each class; the question has two explicit parts (what they are, and how they are classified). A brief mention of pharmacological importance and of drugs acting on them completes the note. (d) A short note on porcine stress syndrome that must cover its genetic basis (RYR1/halothane gene), the triggering stressors, the clinical picture of malignant hyperthermia, the meat-quality consequence (PSE pork), diagnosis and control. (e) Set out the 'key aspects' of regional (local) anaesthesia in the dog: mechanism and drugs with doses, the specific blocks used in canine practice (epidural, brachial plexus, dental, retrobulbar, IVRA, line/ring/intratesticular), the advantages in a multimodal plan, and the complications with their management.

• Definition: air-filled cavities in skull bones lined by respiratory mucosa opening into the nasal cavity
• Named sinuses: frontal (largest, extends into the horn core), maxillary, palatine, lacrimal, sphenoid, conchal
• Functions: lighten skull, protect from shock, warm and humidify air, insulate the brain, voice resonance
• Clinical point: dehorning opens the frontal sinus and may cause sinusitis
• Principle: electron beam, short wavelength, electromagnetic lenses, vacuum, resolution about 0.1–0.2 nm
• TEM: ultrathin sections, fixation, staining with heavy metals, internal ultrastructure (organelles, membranes)
• SEM: surface topography of cells and tissues (gold coating)
• Diagnostic and research uses; limitations
• Definition: locally produced, short-acting bioactive substances, unlike hormones
• Amines: histamine and 5-HT
• Lipid-derived: prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, PAF
• Polypeptides: kinins (bradykinin), angiotensin, endothelin; drugs acting on them
• Genetic basis: autosomal recessive RYR1 mutation (nn), calcium-release channel defect
• Stress triggers (transport, mixing, handling, halothane)
• Signs: tremors, rigidity, hyperthermia, cyanotic blotches, sudden death; PSE meat
• Diagnosis (halothane test, DNA test) and control (removing carriers, reducing stress)
• Definition and mechanism: block of sodium channels near a nerve or the spinal cord
• Techniques: infiltration, line block, nerve blocks, epidural, intravenous regional
• Drugs and doses: lidocaine (6 mg/kg maximum), bupivacaine (2 mg/kg, never intravenous)
• Precautions, benefits (pre-emptive analgesia) and complications (toxicity, nerve injury)

(a) Two distinct tasks: (i) 'Enlist' — a complete, correctly ordered and numbered list of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves of the bovine with their functional type; and (ii) 'Discuss' — the origin (nuclei, superficial origin, foramen of exit, ganglia), the distribution (cervical, thoracic and abdominal course with named branches) and the functions of the vagus nerve. Both parts must be attempted. (b) 'Explain the principles' means set out the scientific rationale that governs how anticancer drugs are selected, dosed and combined in animals — the log-kill and Gompertzian concepts, cell-cycle specificity, body-surface-area dosing, dose intensity and the marrow nadir, the rules of combination chemotherapy, drug resistance, and toxicity and safe handling — with named drugs and protocols as illustration. (c) A five-headed answer on bovine meningitis, each heading explicitly asked for: etiology, pathogenesis, clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment. 'Briefly' means each head must be covered — an answer strong on two heads and silent on the rest cannot score well.

• All twelve cranial nerves listed in correct order with their type (sensory, motor, mixed)
• Vagus origin: medulla oblongata, nuclei (nucleus ambiguus, dorsal motor, tractus solitarius), exit by the jugular foramen
• Distribution: vagosympathetic trunk, pharyngeal, laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal, cardiac, pulmonary, dorsal and ventral vagal trunks to the forestomachs, abomasum and abdominal viscera
• Functions: motor to pharynx, larynx and oesophagus; parasympathetic to heart, lungs and gut; visceral sensory; clinical point (vagal indigestion)
• Log-kill hypothesis and the need for repeated cycles
• Growth kinetics: early or adjuvant treatment; cell-cycle specific versus non-specific drugs
• Combination therapy (for example CHOP) and dosing by body surface area with rest periods
• Toxicity monitoring, drug resistance, safety in handling, informed consent and aims (remission, palliation)
• Aetiology: bacterial (E. coli, Salmonella, streptococci, Histophilus somni, Trueperella pyogenes), failure of colostrum transfer, local extension; also viral
• Pathogenesis: haematogenous or direct spread, inflammation, oedema, raised intracranial pressure, CSF obstruction
• Clinical findings: fever, hyperaesthesia, neck stiffness, opisthotonos, convulsions, blindness, recumbency
• Diagnosis (CSF analysis, culture) and treatment (antibiotics that cross the blood-brain barrier, anti-inflammatory, brain pressure control, supportive care)

(a) Three explicit tasks: (i) enlist the major sources of vitamin A (preformed and provitamin carotenoids); (ii) give the deficiency symptoms SEPARATELY in newborn calves, lambs and piglets; and (iii) list the factors that interfere with vitamin A utilization. Omitting any one species, or treating the third part cursorily, costs marks. (b) Two parts: (i) explain the anatomical features of the avian digestive tract 'along with a diagram' — so a labelled diagram is compulsory and carries marks; and (ii) describe in detail the FUNCTIONAL anatomy (structure related to function) of the crop and of the gizzard. (c) Discuss what is REQUIRED to set up an animal health centre in a rural area — that is, the planning norms and site, the physical infrastructure and equipment, manpower, drugs and cold chain, finance and legal compliance, and community linkage. A list of buildings alone is not a discussion.

• Sources: preformed vitamin A (liver, fish liver oil, egg yolk, milk, colostrum) and provitamin A carotenoids (green fodder, carrots, yellow maize)
• Deficiency: night blindness, xerophthalmia, poor growth, diarrhoea, respiratory infection, weak or malformed young
• Species detail for calves, lambs and piglets (piglet eye defects, incoordination)
• Interfering factors: poor conversion, oxidation and storage losses, nitrate, low fat or poor absorption, protein and zinc deficiency, vitamin E deficiency, liver disease
• Organs in order: beak, oesophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, duodenal loop with pancreas, jejunum, ileum, two caeca, rectum, cloaca
• Labelled diagram
• Crop: storage, moistening, softening, regulation; structure; crop milk in pigeons
• Gizzard: muscular structure, koilin lining, grit, grinding, acid and pepsin mixing, regulation of passage
• Need assessment and location (central, accessible, water and electricity)
• Building, rooms and animal restraint facilities
• Equipment, medicines, vaccines and cold chain
• Staff, services (treatment, vaccination, AI, surveillance, extension), referral linkages, funding and community participation

(a) 'A detailed account' of the impact of three named pollution types — water, air and soil — on BOTH animal health and animal production. Each of the three must be treated separately with named pollutants, named diseases and quantified effects, and the production/economic consequences drawn out. (b) Four explicit parts: the CONDITIONS (causes) that result in dehydration, then its pathogenesis, clinical symptoms and line of treatment. Full marks require quantified clinical assessment (degree of dehydration) and a calculated fluid plan, not a general statement that fluids should be given. (c) Discuss chemoprophylaxis under three named disease groups — bacterial, parasitic and vector-borne — with specific drugs and regimens for each, and then set out its advantages and its limitations. All five components are explicitly demanded.

• Water: toxic chemicals (heavy metals, fluoride, nitrate, pesticides), pathogens, algal toxins; effects on intake, production and health
• Air: gases and dust from housing, industrial emissions, greenhouse gases and heat stress; respiratory and eye effects
• Soil: heavy metals, pesticide residues, mineral imbalance, persistent pathogens; entry via grazing and fodder
• Residues in milk, meat and eggs; prevention and legal measures
• Causes: reduced intake and excess losses (diarrhoea, vomiting, polyuria, sweating, fluid sequestration)
• Pathogenesis: fall in ECF and plasma volume, hypovolaemia, reduced cardiac output, acidosis, compensatory hormones
• Clinical signs: skin tenting, sunken eyes, dry membranes, prolonged capillary refill, weak pulse; degrees by percentage body weight
• Treatment: correct the cause; oral rehydration or intravenous fluids; deficit plus maintenance calculation
• Definition of chemoprophylaxis and metaphylaxis
• Bacterial (antibiotic prophylaxis), parasitic (deworming, anticoccidials, babesiosis and theileriosis drugs) and vector-borne (acaricides, trypanocides) examples
• Advantages: reduced morbidity and mortality, useful where no vaccine, fast and economic
• Limitations: resistance, residues and withdrawal periods, toxicity, temporary protection, not a substitute for vaccination and biosecurity

(a) Explain HOW animals and birds act in the spread of zoonoses to humans — the ecological roles they play (reservoir, maintenance, amplifying, carrier, food source), the routes of transmission, and named disease examples attributable to particular animal and bird species. Birds must be given separate treatment because the question names them. (b) Two explicit parts: the stepwise METHOD of preparing Shrikhand (milk to chakka to shrikhand, with culture, temperature, time and sugar level) and its NUTRITIVE VALUE (approximate composition per 100 g and its dietary merits and demerits). (c) Two explicit parts: a CLASSIFICATION of animal casings (natural versus artificial, and natural casings by species and by segment of the tract) and the sequence of PROCESSING from harvesting to salting and grading. (d) Two explicit parts: the STEPWISE preparation of a meat emulsion (in the correct order of addition, with ingredient levels and the critical temperature) and the PRECAUTIONS that must be observed during chopping to keep the emulsion stable and safe. (e) Two linked parts: the UTILIZATION of rabbit fur (how the pelt is recovered, processed and put to economic use) and the DISPOSAL of fur and the waste generated, including the environmental, health and legal aspects.

• Host roles with named examples: reservoir (dogs-rabies, cattle-brucellosis, bats-Nipah), amplifying (pigs-Japanese encephalitis), vector-hosts (monkeys-KFD)
• Routes: direct contact and bites, food (raw milk, undercooked meat and eggs), aerosols, vectors and contaminated water
• Predisposing factors: crowding, wildlife contact, live-animal markets, habitat loss
• Control through One Health: animal vaccination, pasteurisation, meat inspection, education
• Lactic-cultured dahi (1-2% culture, 30-32 °C, 12-16 h) drained to chakka
• Chakka mixed with powdered sugar (about 1:0.8), flavours such as cardamom, saffron, nuts, fruit pulp; packed and kept at 4-5 °C
• Nutritive value: energy, high-quality milk protein, calcium, phosphorus, B vitamins; reduced lactose; probiotic potential
• Note on high sugar and moderate intake, and FSSAI compositional standards
• Definition: tubular envelopes for sausages
• Classification: natural (hog, sheep, goat, cattle intestine, bung, stomach, bladder) versus artificial (collagen, cellulose, fibrous, plastic, alginate)
• Processing: collect fresh, strip contents and fat, slime (scrape mucosa), retain submucosa, wash
• Grading by diameter and length, leak testing, salting or brining, bundling, cool storage, desalting before use
• Definition: fine mixture of lean, fat and water stabilised by salt-soluble proteins (myosin, actin)
• Steps: chilled meat, grinding, chopping with salt, nitrite, phosphate and ice, then fat, water, spices and binders, stuffing, cooking
• Temperature control: below about 12-15 °C during chopping, else emulsion breaks
• Other precautions: order of ingredients, fat and water levels, avoiding over-chopping, hygiene, nitrite limit, cook to 70-72 °C core
• Case skinning, scraping and shade drying on stretchers
• Tanning and dressing (chrome or alum), dyeing
• Uses: garments, caps, gloves, trimmings, toys, felt; glue from scraps
• Angora wool harvest by shearing or plucking, and use of waste for gelatin or manure

(a) Describe the processing of TWO products — yoghurt and cultured buttermilk — each 'along with flow diagrams', so two flow charts are compulsory and carry marks. Full marks require the correct starter organisms, incubation temperatures and times, and the end-point acidity for each, and a clear contrast between the thermophilic and mesophilic fermentations. (b) Discuss the WTO's role in implementing sanitary and phytosanitary measures as they affect trade in milk and meat products: the SPS Agreement and its date, its key principles and articles, the international standard-setting bodies it defers to, the machinery of transparency and dispute settlement, illustrative disputes, and the practical consequences for Indian dairy and meat exports. (c) Two explicit parts: (i) 'elaborate the functions' of each curing ingredient used in meat processing — salt, nitrite, nitrate, sugar, ascorbate/erythorbate, phosphate, spices and smoke; and (ii) the advantages AND limitations of each curing METHOD — dry cure, wet/pickle cure, and injection (artery, stitch, multi-needle) cure, with tumbling/massaging.

• Yoghurt: standardise (3-3.5% fat, 14-15% SNF), homogenise, heat 85-90 °C, cool to 42-45 °C, inoculate 2-3% S. thermophilus + L. bulgaricus, incubate 3-4 h to pH 4.5-4.6, cool, pack
• Cultured buttermilk: skim milk, heat, cool to 20-22 °C, inoculate about 1% mesophilic lactococci with diacetylactis and Leuconostoc, 12-16 h, break curd, cool, pack
• Flow diagrams drawn for both products with the temperature and time at each step
• Rationale: heat denatures whey protein for firm gel, diacetyl gives buttery flavour, set versus stirred yoghurt
• SPS Agreement (1995): right to protect life and health, but no disguised trade barrier
• Science-based measures, risk assessment, non-discrimination
• Harmonisation with Codex, WOAH and IPPC; equivalence and regionalisation
• Transparency, SPS Committee for trade concerns, dispute settlement, technical assistance; relevance to Indian milk and meat exports
• Salt: preservation, flavour, protein solubilisation and water binding
• Nitrite/nitrate: cured colour via nitric oxide and myoglobin, flavour, anti-botulinum action, antioxidant; legal limit because of nitrosamines
• Sugar, ascorbate or erythorbate, phosphates, spices and smoke with their functions
• Methods (dry, wet, injection, direct addition to comminuted meat) each with an advantage and a limitation

(a) Describe the full PROCEDURE of a vetero-legal (medico-legal) post-mortem on a cow: the legal preliminaries and authority, identification and witnesses, estimation of time of death, external then systematic internal examination, distinction of ante-mortem from post-mortem injury, collection and preservation of samples with chain of custody, and the report and carcass disposal. The forensic elements are what distinguish this from a routine diagnostic necropsy. (b) Two explicit parts: a detailed account of Cheddar cheese processing 'with a flow diagram' — so the flow chart is compulsory and carries marks — and the nutritive value of Cheddar. Full marks need the distinctive steps of cheddaring, milling and dry salting with their temperatures, acidity end points and times, plus a quantified composition. (c) List and explain the uses of animal organs and glandular by-products under TWO heads named in the question — food uses (edible offal and food-processing aids) and pharmaceutical uses (organotherapeutic and biological products) — naming the organ and the product derived from it in each case.

• Legal preliminaries: written requisition from police or court, identification of the animal, history, witnesses, photographs, timing
• Anthrax precaution: no opening of a suspect carcass, peripheral blood smear instead
• External then systematic internal examination: left lateral position, incision, abdominal and thoracic organs in situ, each organ, brain
• Sample collection and preservation (saturated salt solution for toxicology, formalin for histopathology), sealing and chain of custody, then report with opinion and disposal of carcass
• Milk standardisation and pasteurisation (72 °C, 15 s), cooling to 30-31 °C, starter 1-2% with annatto and CaCl₂
• Renneting (30-40 min), cutting, cooking to 38-39 °C, whey drainage
• Cheddaring to pH 5.2-5.3, milling, salting 2-2.5%, hooping and pressing, waxing or packing, ripening 6-10 °C for 3-12 months
• Flow diagram with parameters; nutritive value (about 25 g protein, 33 g fat, 700 mg calcium per 100 g, vitamins A and B12) and compositional standard
• Food uses of offal (liver, heart, kidney, tripe) with nutrient value
• Blood, bone, fat, gelatin and collagen casings
• Pharmaceutical products with source organs: insulin and pancreatin (pancreas), heparin (intestine, lung), pepsin, rennet (stomach), pituitary and thyroid hormones
• Other medical uses: chondroitin sulphate, catgut, bile acids, porcine heart valves

(a) Two explicit tasks: (i) DIFFERENTIATE a service abattoir from a commercial abattoir — best done as a point-by-point comparison on ownership of the animal and the meat, revenue model, scale, mechanisation, by-product utilisation and value addition; and (ii) set out the general principles of efficient abattoir management specifically 'in Indian conditions'. (b) Describe the measures for hygienic meat production and handling along the whole chain named in the question — 'farm to fork' — that is, at the farm, in transport, in the lairage and at ante-mortem, during slaughter and dressing, at post-mortem inspection, in chilling and processing, in distribution and retail, and finally in the consumer's kitchen, underpinned by GHP/HACCP and regulation. (c) Discuss preservation under two distinct heads explicitly named: SHELL eggs (refrigeration, oiling, thermostabilisation, controlled atmosphere, coatings and traditional methods) and BROKEN-OUT or LIQUID eggs (pasteurisation with the different time-temperature combinations for whole egg, yolk and albumen, chilling, freezing with its gelation problem, and drying with desugaring). Both heads must be covered.

• Service abattoir: local-body ownership, facility on fee, butcher owns animal and meat, small scale, weak by-product use
• Commercial abattoir: private or corporate, buys and sells, mechanised, chillers, by-product and effluent plants, export potential
• Principles: site and layout with one-way flow, licensing and legal compliance (FSSAI, Slaughter House Rules 2001), humane handling, ante- and post-mortem inspection
• Principles: chilling, by-product use, effluent treatment, trained staff, HACCP and GMP, records and modernisation
• Farm: animal health, vaccination, biosecurity, feed safety, drug withdrawal to avoid residues, humane transport
• Slaughter: rest and fasting, ante-mortem inspection, stunning, complete bleeding, dressing without gut rupture, potable water, post-mortem inspection
• Chilling to 0-4 °C and unbroken cold chain (frozen at -18 °C); hygienic processing with GMP and HACCP
• Retail and consumer hygiene, cooking to at least 70 °C core, personnel hygiene, traceability and FSSAI regulation
• Shell eggs: refrigeration (0-4 °C, 85-90% RH), oiling, lime water or water glass, thermostabilisation
• Traditional and other methods: CO₂ storage, packing in ash, sand or bran; in-shell pasteurisation
• Liquid eggs: pasteurisation (whole about 60-61 °C for 3.5-4 min, white about 55-56 °C), chilling
• Freezing at -18 °C with sugar or salt for yolk, and drying after glucose removal from white