All 8 questions from UPSC Civil Services Mains Economics 2026 Paper I (400 marks total). Every stem reproduced in full, with directive-word analysis, marks, word limits, and answer-approach pointers.
8Questions
400Total marks
2026Year
Paper IPaper
A
Q1
50M150wCompulsorycalculate
Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :
(a) According to Michal Kalecki, how the degree of monopoly and the level of investment interact to determine the functional distribution of income between wages and profits ? (10 marks)
(b) Show how the aggregate demand curve is derived in the classical system. Mention its special property. (10 marks)
(c) Discuss the term structure of interest and the rule of arbitrage inherent in this. (10 marks)
(d) Differentiate between public goods and private goods. What is a ‘Free Rider’ problem ? (10 marks)
(e) What is the crowding-out effect in Fiscal Policy ? How can foreign capital mitigate the crowding-out effect ? (10 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
निम्नलिखित प्रत्येक प्रश्न का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए :
(a) मिखाल कालेकी के अनुसार, मजदूरी व लाभ में आय के कार्यात्मक वितरण को निर्धारित करने के लिए किस प्रकार एकाधिकार की मात्रा तथा विनियोग का स्तर परस्पर प्रतिक्रिया करते हैं ? (10 अंक)
(b) दर्शाइए कि परम्परागत प्रणाली में, समग्र मांग वक्र कैसे व्युत्पन्न होता है । इसके विशेष गुण का उल्लेख कीजिए । (10 अंक)
(c) ब्याज की अवधि संरचना (term structure) तथा इसमें अन्तर्निहित अंतरणपण के नियम (rule of arbitrage) की विवेचना कीजिए । (10 अंक)
(d) सार्वजनिक वस्तुओं तथा निजी वस्तुओं में भेद कीजिए । ‘मुफ्त की सवारी’ की समस्या क्या है ? (10 अंक)
(e) राजकोषीय नीति में अपवर्जन प्रभाव क्या है ? विदेशी पूँजी किस प्रकार अपवर्जन प्रभाव को कम कर सकती है ? (10 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Explain Kalecki's theory of functional (factor) distribution: how the 'degree of monopoly' fixes the WAGE/PROFIT SHARE while the level of investment (plus capitalists' consumption) fixes the ABSOLUTE MASS of profits, and how the two interact to determine output and the wage-profit division. Both determinants must be handled and linked, not described separately. (b) Derive the classical aggregate demand curve from the quantity theory of money (MV = PY or the Cambridge equation M = kPY) and state its special property - that it is a rectangular hyperbola with unit elasticity, shifting only with M (or V). Both the derivation and the special property must be answered. (c) Explain what the term structure of interest rates (yield curve) is and set out the arbitrage rule embedded in it - the pure expectations condition that a long rate equals the geometric average of expected future short rates because riskless profits from rolling over versus holding to maturity are competed away. Both the concept and the arbitrage rule must be covered. (d) Two explicit tasks: (i) distinguish public from private goods on the criteria of rivalry and excludability, including the different optimality conditions; and (ii) define and explain the free-rider problem and its consequence for provision. Both parts must be answered. (e) Two explicit tasks: (i) define the crowding-out effect of fiscal policy and explain its mechanism and the conditions governing its size; and (ii) explain how foreign capital inflows can mitigate it. Both must be answered; a mere definition will not do.
degree of monopoly (mark-up factor m: ratio of price to average prime cost) fixes the relative shares
p = m(u + w)
relative wage share W/Y = 1/[1 + (m - 1)(1 + j)]
P = I + C_k (profits equal investment plus capitalists' consumption)
classical savings assumption: workers do not save
Equation of exchange MV = PY (Irving Fisher) or Cambridge equation M = kPY
Y = MV/P as the classical AD function
rectangular hyperbola; unit elasticity
vertical classical AS at full-employment output
classical dichotomy and neutrality of money
yield curve / term structure
pure expectations theory (Fisher, Lutz)
(1 + R_2)^2 = (1 + r_1)(1 + E(r_2))
forward rate as expected future spot rate
Hicks liquidity premium theory
market segmentation (Culbertson) and preferred habitat (Modigliani-Sutch)
Paul A. Samuelson, The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure (1954)
non-rivalry (non-rival consumption) and non-excludability
(a) Under what conditions, does a market reach equilibrium ? Analyse the differences in stability between Marshallian and Walrasian approaches. (20 marks)
(b) Critically examine the statement, “Pareto optimally does not give a sufficient basis for ordering economic states from the perspective of social welfare”. Can an economy with extreme inequality be considered Pareto efficient ? (15 marks)
(c) The following data are given for a duopoly market :
P = 100 – 0.5 (q₁ + q₂)
C₁ = 5 q₁
C₂ = 0.5 q₂²
Suppose the duopolists recognise the mutual interdependence and decide to act as one group to maximize the total profit of the industry. Find out q₁, q₂, P and the profits of the firms denoted as π₁ & π₂. (15 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
(a) किन परिस्थितियों में, बाजार सन्तुलन की स्थिति को प्राप्त करता है ? मार्शल तथा वालरस के दृष्टिकोणों के बीच स्थिरता में अन्तर का विश्लेषण कीजिए । (20 अंक)
(b) इस कथन का समालोचनात्मक परीक्षण कीजिए कि “परेटो इष्टतमता सामाजिक कल्याण के दृष्टिकोण से आर्थिक अवस्थाओं को क्रमबद्ध करने के लिए पर्याप्त आधार नहीं देती है ।” क्या अत्यधिक असमानता युक्त अर्थव्यवस्था को परेटो दक्ष माना जा सकता है ? (15 अंक)
(c) एक द्वयाधिकार बाजार के लिए निम्न आंकड़े दिये हुए हैं :
P = 100 – 0.5 (q₁ + q₂)
C₁ = 5 q₁
C₂ = 0.5 q₂²
यदि द्वयाधिकारी पारस्परिक अन्तर्निर्भरता को समझ कर, उद्योग के कुल लाभ को अधिकतम करने के लिए एक समूह के रूप में कार्य करने का निर्णय लेते हैं तब q₁, q₂, P तथा फर्मों के लाभ जो π₁ & π₂ से व्यक्त किये गये हैं को ज्ञात कीजिए । (15 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Two linked tasks: (i) state the conditions for market equilibrium - existence, and the distinction between equilibrium and stability (local/global, static/dynamic); and (ii) analyse how the Marshallian (quantity-adjustment) and Walrasian (price-adjustment) stability criteria differ, including the cases where they give opposite verdicts. (b) Critically examine why the Pareto criterion cannot by itself rank economic states for social welfare - it yields only a partial ordering over an infinity of optima and is silent on distribution - and then answer the direct question: yes, an economy with extreme inequality can be Pareto efficient. Both the critique and the explicit verdict are required. (c) A duopoly with P = 100 - 0.5(q1 + q2), C1 = 5q1 and C2 = 0.5q2^2. The firms COLLUDE and act as a multi-plant monopolist maximising joint industry profit. Compute q1, q2, P and the individual profits pi1 and pi2. This is a cartel/joint-profit-maximisation problem, not Cournot, Stackelberg or Bertrand.
Walrasian tatonnement; price adjustment to excess demand
Marshallian quantity adjustment to excess demand price
Walras stability condition: d(D - S)/dP < 0
Marshall stability condition: d(Dp - Sp)/dQ < 0
the case of both curves negatively sloped, where the two criteria give opposite verdicts
cobweb theorem (Ezekiel); Hicks on perfect and imperfect stability; Samuelson's correspondence principle
(a) The following values for an economy are given :
C = 0.8 (1 – t)Y
t = 0.25
I = 900 – 50r, G = 800,
L = 0.25Y – 62.5r
M̄/P = 500, P = 1
The variables have the usual meaning. Find out the following :
(i) Equilibrium values of Y and r
(ii) Slopes of IS and LM curves
(iii) Expression of Government expenditure multiplier for income in terms of slopes of saving function, investment function and money demand function
(iv) If Government expenditure increases by 240, then how much Y would increase as per the multiplier derived in the question part (iii) above ? (20 marks)
(b) (i) Show how automatic full-employment is guaranteed in the classical model.
(ii) How does Keynes show the possibility of underemployment equilibrium in the labour market ? (15 marks)
(c) Give an outline of the new classical policy ineffectiveness proposition. (15 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
(a) एक अर्थव्यवस्था के लिए निम्न मान दिये हुए हैं :
C = 0.8 (1 – t)Y
t = 0.25
I = 900 – 50r, G = 800,
L = 0.25Y – 62.5r
M̄/P = 500, P = 1
चरों के अर्थ सामान्य हैं । निम्न को ज्ञात कीजिए :
(i) Y तथा r के सन्तुलन मान
(ii) IS तथा LM वक्रों के ढाल
(iii) बचत फलन, विनियोग फलन तथा मुद्रा माँग फलन के ढाल के रूप में, आय के लिए सरकारी व्यय गुणक का व्यंजक
(iv) यदि सरकारी व्यय में 240 की वृद्धि हो जाये, तो ऊपर दिये हुए प्रश्नांश (iii) में व्युत्पन्न गुणक के अनुसार Y में कितनी वृद्धि होगी ? (20 अंक)
(b) (i) समझाइए कि किस प्रकार प्रतिष्ठित मॉडल में स्वचालित पूर्ण रोजगार की गारन्टी होती है ।
(ii) कीन्स ने श्रम बाजार में अल्प-रोजगार सन्तुलन की सम्भावना को किस प्रकार व्यक्त किया है ? (15 अंक)
(c) नव प्रतिष्ठित नीति की प्रभावहीनता के प्रस्ताव की रूपरेखा प्रस्तुत कीजिए । (15 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) A four-part IS-LM problem with C = 0.8(1 - t)Y, t = 0.25, I = 900 - 50r, G = 800, L = 0.25Y - 62.5r, M/P = 500, P = 1. Required: (i) equilibrium Y and r; (ii) the slopes of the IS and LM curves; (iii) an algebraic expression for the government-expenditure multiplier in terms of the slopes of the saving, investment and money-demand functions; (iv) the resulting increase in Y when G rises by 240. All four parts must be answered. (b) Two explicit sub-parts: (i) show how the classical model guarantees automatic full employment (labour-market clearing through flexible real wages, plus Say's Law and a flexible interest rate); and (ii) show how Keynes establishes the possibility of an underemployment equilibrium in the labour market. Both must be answered, with the labour-market mechanics made explicit. (c) Outline the new classical policy ineffectiveness proposition (PIP): its three building blocks (rational expectations, continuous market clearing, and the Lucas surprise supply function), its central result that only UNANTICIPATED policy affects real output, and its policy corollaries and criticisms.
IS: Y = 4250 - 125r
LM: Y = 2000 + 250r
r* = 6, Y* = 3500
IS slope -1/125 (-0.008) and LM slope +1/250 (+0.004) in (Y, r) space
dY/dG = 1/(s + bk/h) with s = 1 - c(1 - t) = 0.4, b = 50, k = 0.25, h = 62.5, giving 1/0.6 = 1.667
Delta Y = 400
MPL = W/P as the classical labour demand condition
absence of money illusion in classical labour supply
Say's Law; S(r) = I(r); Pigou real-balance effect
downward rigidity of money wages / bargaining over money wages
point of effective demand: aggregate demand price D1 + D2 = aggregate supply price Z
involuntary unemployment as defined in the General Theory (1936)
liquidity trap and interest-inelastic investment
Sargent and Wallace (1975/1976); Robert Lucas
rational expectations (John Muth, 1961)
continuous market clearing
Lucas surprise supply function Y = Y_n + alpha(P - P^e)
only unanticipated policy has real effects
Lucas critique (1976); Kydland-Prescott time inconsistency (1977)
Fischer (1977) / Taylor overlapping wage contracts as the standard rebuttal
(a) Explain the instruments through which the government of any country tries to successfully carry out its three major roles namely, Allocation, Distribution and Stabilization. (20 marks)
(b) Discuss the relative effectiveness of capital expenditure versus revenue expenditure in stimulating economic activity. (15 marks)
(c) Discuss the major difference of Friedman's restatement of quantity theory of money from the Keynesian demand for money. (15 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
(a) उन उपकरणों को समझाइए जिनके द्वारा किसी भी देश की सरकार तीन प्रमुख भूमिकाओं यथा – आबंटन, वितरण तथा स्थिरीकरण का सफलतापूर्वक निर्वहन करने का प्रयास करती है । (20 अंक)
(b) आर्थिक क्रियाओं को बढ़ाने में पूँजीगत व्यय बनाम राजस्व व्यय की सापेक्षिक प्रभावशीलता का विवेचन कीजिए । (15 अंक)
(c) फ्रीडमैन के मुद्रा के परिमाण सिद्धान्त के पुनर्कथन तथा कीन्स की मुद्रा की मांग में प्रमुख अन्तर की चर्चा कीजिए । (15 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Explain the INSTRUMENTS through which government discharges Musgrave's three budgetary functions - allocation, distribution and stabilisation. The emphasis is on instruments under each head, not merely on describing the three functions, and all three branches must be covered. (b) Compare the RELATIVE effectiveness of capital expenditure and revenue expenditure in stimulating economic activity - definitions, the multiplier evidence, the demand-side versus supply-side channels, the limitations of each, and a reasoned verdict. A one-sided answer will not meet the demand. (c) Set out the MAJOR differences between Friedman's restatement of the quantity theory (1956) and the Keynesian demand for money - on the nature of money demand, the scale and opportunity-cost variables, the range of substitute assets, interest elasticity, the stability of the function and the policy conclusions that follow.
Richard A. Musgrave, The Theory of Public Finance (1959); allocation, distribution, stabilisation branches
Pigouvian tax/subsidy; tradable permits; merit and demerit goods
social cost-benefit analysis / shadow pricing
progressive taxation; transfer payments; negative income tax (Friedman)
automatic stabilisers and built-in flexibility
counter-cyclical discretionary fiscal policy; public debt management; FRBM Act, 2003
Oates's decentralisation theorem for assigning functions across levels of government
definition: capital expenditure creates assets or reduces liabilities; revenue expenditure is recurring and asset-neutral
expenditure multiplier; capital-expenditure multiplier much larger than the revenue-expenditure multiplier (RBI/NIPFP estimates)
crowding in of private investment; incremental capital-output ratio
golden rule of public finance / borrowing for assets versus for consumption
high marginal propensity to consume of transfer recipients
Answer the following questions in about 150 words each :
(a) “Import tariffs typically result in a net welfare loss for a country”. Do you agree ? Justify your answer by applying an import tariff for a small economy and a large economy. (10 marks)
(b) In what sense trade can act as an engine of growth ? Elaborate. (10 marks)
(c) Throw light on the changing role of markets in economic development of developing countries. How it has affected planning process ? Discuss. (10 marks)
(d) Analyse the role of Research and Development (R&D) in fostering economic growth and strengthening competitiveness in a knowledge-based economy. (10 marks)
(e) Explain the “Single Undertaking” principle used in the Doha Round and its implications for WTO negotiations. (10 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
निम्नलिखित प्रत्येक प्रश्न का उत्तर लगभग 150 शब्दों में दीजिए :
(a) “सामान्यत: आयात प्रशुल्क एक देश के शुद्ध कल्याण में कमी कर देते हैं” । क्या आप सहमत हैं ? एक बड़ी अर्थव्यवस्था व एक छोटी अर्थव्यवस्था पर आयात प्रशुल्क को लागू करके अपने उत्तर के औचित्य को सिद्ध कीजिए । (10 अंक)
(b) किस अर्थ में व्यापार, संवृद्धि (growth) के इंजन का कार्य कर सकता है ? विस्तार से व्याख्या कीजिए । (10 अंक)
(c) विकासशील देशों के आर्थिक विकास में बाजार की बदलती हुई भूमिका पर प्रकाश डालिए । इसने योजना प्रक्रिया को कैसे प्रभावित किया है ? विवेचना कीजिए । (10 अंक)
(d) एक ज्ञान-आधारित अर्थव्यवस्था में आर्थिक संवृद्धि को बढ़ाने तथा प्रतिस्पर्द्धा को सुदृढ़ करने में अनुसंधान एवं विकास (R&D) की भूमिका का विश्लेषण कीजिए । (10 अंक)
(e) दोहा दौर में प्रयुक्त “एकल प्रतिबद्धता” सिद्धान्त तथा विश्व व्यापार संगठन वार्ता के लिए इसके निहितार्थों को समझाइए । (10 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Take a position on whether an import tariff always causes a net welfare loss, and justify it by applying partial-equilibrium tariff analysis SEPARATELY to a small economy (price-taker) and a large economy (able to move the world price). The expected answer is qualified agreement: unambiguous net loss for a small country, but a possible net gain up to the optimum tariff for a large country. (b) Explain the sense in which trade acts as an 'engine of growth' - the static and, more importantly, the DYNAMIC channels through which it raises long-run growth - and elaborate, which requires both the supporting mechanisms and the standard qualifications. (c) Two linked tasks: trace how the role assigned to markets in the development of developing countries has CHANGED over time (state-led planning, the market-friendly turn, the institutional and post-crisis rebalancing), and then discuss how that shift altered the nature and content of PLANNING. Both parts must be answered. (d) Analyse how research and development drives economic GROWTH and strengthens COMPETITIVENESS in a knowledge-based economy - the endogenous growth mechanism, the spillover/market-failure case for policy support, the competitiveness channels, and the constraints. Both the growth and the competitiveness limbs must be covered. (e) Explain the 'single undertaking' principle as applied in the Doha Round - that nothing is agreed until everything is agreed, so the whole negotiating agenda is one package - and set out its implications for WTO negotiations, both the intended advantages and the gridlock it produced. Both the principle and its implications must be covered.
consumer surplus, producer surplus and tariff revenue areas; deadweight loss b + d
production (protection) effect and consumption effect
terms-of-trade gain for a large country
optimum tariff t* = 1/e* (elasticity of foreign export supply)
retaliation and tariff war; beggar-thy-neighbour
Lerner symmetry theorem or the Metzler paradox (as an extension)
D. H. Robertson - trade as an engine of growth
vent for surplus (Adam Smith; Hla Myint)
economies of scale and widened markets; Kaldor / Verdoorn's law
(a) Discuss the major differences between Old and New international trade theories. (20 marks)
(b) Explain the effect of a monetary expansion on exchange rate in the short and the long run under perfect capital mobility. (15 marks)
(c) Explain whether the parallel imports violate provisions of TRIPS and affect the pricing policy of a patent holder MNC. Give reasons why all rich nations do not follow this ? (15 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
(a) अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय व्यापार के प्राचीन व नवीन सिद्धान्तों में प्रमुख अन्तरों की विवेचना कीजिए । (20 अंक)
(b) पूर्ण पूँजी गतिशीलता के अन्तर्गत, अल्पकाल व दीर्घकाल में मौद्रिक विस्तार का विनिमय दर पर प्रभाव समझाइए । (15 अंक)
(c) समझाइए कि क्या समानान्तर आयात TRIPS प्रावधानों का उल्लंघन करते हैं तथा एकस्व (पेटेन्ट) धारक बहुराष्ट्रीय कम्पनी (MNC) की मूल्य नीति को प्रभावित करते हैं ? सभी सम्पन्न राष्ट्र इसका अनुसरण क्यों नहीं करते, कारण बताइए । (15 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Set out the major differences between OLD trade theory (Smith, Ricardo, Heckscher-Ohlin and its theorems) and NEW trade theory (Krugman, Helpman, Lancaster and the later firm-level 'new new' literature) - in assumptions, determinants of trade, the pattern of trade predicted, the nature of the gains, distributional effects, policy implications and empirical performance. (b) Trace the effect of a monetary expansion on the exchange rate under perfect capital mobility, distinguishing the SHORT run from the LONG run. The expected core is Dornbusch's (1976) overshooting model: sticky prices plus uncovered interest parity produce an immediate depreciation larger than the long-run one, followed by gradual appreciation to the new long-run level. (c) Three explicit tasks: (i) decide whether parallel imports violate TRIPS - the answer turns on Article 6 and the exhaustion doctrine, and is NO; (ii) explain how parallel imports affect the pricing policy of a patent-holding multinational, by destroying international price discrimination; and (iii) explain why the rich, technology-exporting nations do not all permit them.
Ricardo's comparative advantage; Heckscher-Ohlin factor-proportions theory
(a) Analyse the role of human capital as a driver of economic development in developing countries. How can education and healthcare investment overcome the “Low productivity trap” in developing nations ? (20 marks)
(b) Compare Gunnar Myrdal’s “backwash effects” with Simon Kuznets’ “structural transformation” in the context of developing economies. (15 marks)
(c) Explain the factors contributing to the rise of MNCs. Discuss whether their efficiency is driven by superior technology or anti-competitive practices. (15 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
(a) विकासशील देशों में आर्थिक विकास के चालक के रूप में मानव पूँजी की भूमिका का विश्लेषण कीजिए । विकासशील राष्ट्रों में, किस प्रकार शिक्षा तथा स्वास्थ्य सेवा में निवेश “निम्न उत्पादकता जाल” पर काबू पा सकता है । (20 अंक)
(b) विकासशील देशों के सन्दर्भ में गुन्नार मिर्डल के “प्रतिवाही प्रभाव” की साइमन कुजनेट्स के “संरचनात्मक रूपान्तरण” से तुलना कीजिए । (15 अंक)
(c) बहुराष्ट्रीय निगमों (MNCs) के उदय के कारणों को समझाइए । क्या उनकी दक्षता उत्कृष्ट तकनीक के कारण है अथवा प्रतिस्पर्द्धा विरोधी प्रथाओं के कारण ? विवेचना कीजिए । (15 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Two linked tasks: analyse human capital as a driver of development in developing countries (theory, channels, evidence), and then explain specifically how investment in EDUCATION and HEALTHCARE breaks the low-productivity trap - which requires defining that trap as a self-reinforcing low-level equilibrium and showing the mechanism of escape. (b) Compare Gunnar Myrdal's backwash effects with Simon Kuznets' structural transformation for developing economies - what each concept asserts, how they differ in their view of whether growth equalises or divides, and what each implies for policy. Both must be explained accurately before they are compared. (c) Two tasks: explain the factors behind the rise of multinational corporations, drawing on the theory of foreign direct investment; and then adjudicate whether their efficiency rests on superior technology or on anti-competitive practices - which calls for evidence on both sides and a reasoned verdict, not a one-sided answer.
T. W. Schultz (1961) and Gary Becker (1964); Mincer earnings function
Lucas (1988) human capital externalities; Mankiw, Romer and Weil (1992)
Grossman (1972) health capital; WHO Commission on Macroeconomics and Health (2001)
low-productivity trap as a vicious circle / low-level equilibrium (Nurkse; Nelson's 1956 low-level equilibrium trap as the analogue); nutrition-based efficiency wage (Leibenstein)
credit-constrained schooling (Galor and Zeira, 1993)
Amartya Sen's capability approach; Human Development Index (Mahbub ul Haq and Sen, 1990)
learning crisis - schooling is not learning (World Development Report 2018; ASER findings)
Gunnar Myrdal, Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions (1957); circular and cumulative causation
backwash and spread effects; Hirschman's polarisation and trickling-down as the parallel formulation
Simon Kuznets, modern economic growth and structural transformation
Kuznets inverted-U curve (1955) relating inequality to income
sectoral shift of labour from agriculture to industry and services; urbanisation; demographic transition
regional divergence and the case for deliberate state intervention
Stephen Hymer (1960) - firm-specific advantages and market imperfections
John Dunning's eclectic OLI paradigm (ownership, location, internalisation)
Buckley and Casson - internalisation and Coasean transaction costs
(a) “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed”. Analyse this statement in the context of environmental degradation and the rights of future generations. To what extent does the rapid, industrial-driven depletion of non-renewable resources constitute a violation of intergenerational equity. (20 marks)
(b) What strategies are required for Agriculture Sector transformation to ensure rapid economic development of a developing country ? Discuss. (15 marks)
(c) What are the various approaches to Human Development ? Elaborate Basic Needs Approach. (15 marks)
हिंदी में पढ़ें
(a) “पृथ्वी ने प्रत्येक मनुष्य की आवश्यकताओं, न कि प्रत्येक मनुष्य के लालच को सन्तुष्ट करने के लिए पर्याप्त प्रदान किया है ।” इस कथन का पर्यावरण क्षरण तथा भावी पीढ़ियों के अधिकारों के सन्दर्भ में विश्लेषण कीजिए । किस सीमा तक औद्योगिक चालित गैर-नवीकरणीय संसाधनों का ह्रास अंतर-पीढ़ी समता का उल्लंघन है ? (20 अंक)
(b) एक विकासशील देश में तीव्र आर्थिक विकास को सुनिश्चित करने के लिए, कृषि क्षेत्र के रूपान्तरण के लिए किन रणनीतियों की आवश्यकता है ? विवेचना कीजिए । (15 अंक)
(c) मानव विकास के विभिन्न दृष्टिकोण क्या हैं ? बुनियादी आवश्यकता दृष्टिकोण की विस्तार से व्याख्या कीजिए । (15 अंक)
Answer approach & key points
(a) Three linked tasks: analyse the needs-versus-greed aphorism in the context of environmental degradation and the rights of future generations; explain intergenerational equity and its economic formalisation; and answer the 'to what extent' question about whether industry-driven depletion of non-renewable resources violates that equity - which requires a calibrated verdict, not a blanket yes or no. (b) Set out the strategies needed to TRANSFORM the agricultural sector of a developing country so as to secure rapid overall development. This requires the structural role of agriculture in development theory plus a set of concrete, sequenced strategies - technological, institutional, market, infrastructural and sustainability - not a list of schemes. (c) Two tasks with unequal weight: first briefly enumerate the main approaches to human development (income/growth, welfare, human-capital or human-resource, basic needs, capability, rights-based and sustainable human development); then ELABORATE the Basic Needs Approach - its origin, content, merits, measurement and criticisms.
Brundtland Commission, Our Common Future (1987); sustainable development
Rio Declaration 1992 Principle 3; precautionary principle and polluter pays
Hotelling's rule (1931); Hartwick's rule (1977)
weak versus strong sustainability; critical natural capital
social discount rate; Ramsey rule; Stern Review (2006) versus Nordhaus
tragedy of the commons (Hardin, 1968); Ostrom on governing the commons
common but differentiated responsibilities; Paris Agreement (2015); India's net-zero by 2070
Lewis labour-surplus model; Ranis-Fei
Johnston and Mellor (1961) - product, market, factor and foreign-exchange contributions of agriculture
Schultz, Transforming Traditional Agriculture (1964) - efficient but poor
agricultural research and extension; climate-resilient and high-yielding varieties
diversification to horticulture, livestock, dairy and fisheries; Operation Flood/Amul