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UPSC Philosophy — Previous Year Questions

Every question from Philosophy papers in UPSC Civil Services Mains (2021–2026), organised by year. 96 questions in total, each with directive-word analysis, model answer points, and a full evaluation rubric.

96Questions
6Years covered

2026 Mains

16 questions · 800 marks

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Paper I 8 Qs · 400 marksPaper II 8 Qs · 400 marks
All 16 questions from 2026

Paper I

  1. Q1 (a) How does Spinoza explain the relationship between states of mind and bodily processes? (10 marks) (b) Explain the… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) What, according to Aristotle, is the fundamental problem of metaphysics? Discuss this in relation with Aristotle's… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Why are states of consciousness ascribed to anything at all and why are they ascribed to the same things to which… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) “Wittgenstein’s difficulty about not being able to say anything within a given language about the structure of that… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) According to Nyāya view of inference (Anumāna), what are the characteristics that ascertain the validity of… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) “A mango tree is grown out of a mango seed.” How do the Sāṁkhya philosophers explain this process through their… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Critically explain the arguments presented by the Akhyātivādins for explaining erroneous cognition. Evaluate the… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) Present an account of Upamāna as an instrument of knowledge (Pramāṇa). How is Nyāya view of Upamāna different from… 50 marks

Paper II

  1. Q1 (a) Why does Rawls consider it necessary that the two principles of justice be applied in lexical order ? Explain. (10… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Evaluate the importance of Kautilya's theory of Rajamandala in the context of sovereignty. (20 marks) (b) Does… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Retributivism presents a deontological justification for capital punishment, whereas deterrence presents a… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) How has Ambedkar applied the concept of ‘Social Endosmosis’ for annihilation of castes. Evaluate its relevance for… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) On what grounds does William James characterize mystical states as a genuine expression of religious experience ?… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) In what sense does St. Augustine's identification of all evil as either sin or as the punishment of sin succeed or… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Analyse R. M. Hare's concept of ‘blik’ and assess whether it successfully defends the meaningfulness of religious… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) Critically evaluate the shift in Gandhi's view from ‘God is Truth’ to ‘Truth is God’, in the context of… 50 marks

2025 Mains

16 questions · 800 marks

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Paper I 8 Qs · 400 marksPaper II 8 Qs · 400 marks
All 16 questions from 2025

Paper I

  1. Q1 (a) "Ideas are timeless and spaceless." Elucidate this statement with reference to Plato. 10 (b) "In the empirical… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) What are the basic tenets of Rationalism ? How does Descartes build a system of Philosophy in consonance with them… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) "We should look not to an ideal language which derives its meaning from facts and has a precise logical structure… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) How is Husserl's account of "I think" different from that of Descartes ? Critically discuss. 20 (b) "We can affirm… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Explain the ground on which Cārvāka rejects inference (anumāna) as a valid source of knowledge. 10 (b) Present an… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Present a detailed account of Gautama's definition of Perception. 20 (b) How is Brahman conceptualised in Advaita… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Why does Śaṃkara consider Sāṃkhya Philosophy as his chief opponent (pradhāna malla) ? Examine his arguments against… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) Discuss the idea of Bimba-pratibimbavāda as presented in Vedanta philosophy along with its soteriological… 50 marks

Paper II

  1. Q1 (a) "Corrupt practices reveal an inherent tension between particularistic and universalistic normative standards." Do… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Present a detailed account of the debate between Gandhi and Ambedkar on the issue of caste discrimination. (20… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Can one's right to life be absolute ? Answer with reference to the idea of Capital Punishment. (20 marks) (b) How… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) How are both equality and liberty inadequate as social and political ideals without justice ? Discuss. (20 marks)… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Discuss Cārvāka's critique of the belief in the existence of suprasensible entities. (10 marks) (b) Is religious… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Present an account of Design argument to prove the existence of God along with its criticism by David Hume. (20… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) How does the Vedantic view of Religious Pluralism address the conflicting truth claims of different faiths ? Answer… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) Evaluate the nature and object of Religious Experience as explained by Radhakrishnan in 'The Hindu View of Life'… 50 marks

2024 Mains

16 questions · 800 marks

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Paper I 8 Qs · 400 marksPaper II 8 Qs · 400 marks
All 16 questions from 2024

Paper I

  1. Q1 (a) Differentiate between Plato's and Aristotle's conceptions of form. 10 marks (b) How does Kant respond to Hume's… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Is rejection of Locke's notion of primary qualities instrumental in Berkeley's leaning towards idealism ? In this… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Explain Russell's notion of incomplete symbols. Also explain how this notion leads to the doctrine of logical… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) What do the existentialist thinkers mean by the slogan "existence precedes essence" ? How is human existence… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Do you think Cārvāka's philosophy is positivistic in nature ? Give reasons and justifications for your answer. 10… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Differentiate between the Cārvākas' refutation of self as a transcendental category and the Buddhist rejection of… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Present an account of evolution of Prakṛti as propounded in Sāṃkhyakārikā. In this context, also explain the… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) How do I know that I know ? Answer this question with reference to the Naiyāyikas, the Bhāṭṭa Mīmāṃsākas and the… 50 marks

Paper II

  1. Q1 (a) Briefly discuss Plato's concept of justice. (10 marks) (b) Present a brief account of origin and development of… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Delineate the central tenets of Humanism. How does advent of enlightenment in Europe pave the way for Humanism?… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Do you agree with the view that Aristotle was more successful than Plato in steering a middle course between… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) Discuss gender equality as a necessary condition to achieve empowerment of women. Also examine the role of women… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Can there be a religion without morality? Discuss. (10 marks) (b) Write a note on the notion of absolute truth in… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Is it necessary to adhere to the notions of immortality of soul and rebirth in order to have a robust conception of… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) State and evaluate Buddhism as a religion without God. (20 marks) (b) What kind of epistemic justifications are… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) Distinguish between cognitivist and non-cognitivist account of religious language. Does the cognitivist account… 50 marks

2023 Mains

16 questions · 800 marks

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Paper I 8 Qs · 400 marksPaper II 8 Qs · 400 marks
All 16 questions from 2023

Paper I

  1. Q1 (a) "Precepts without concepts are blind and concepts without precepts are empty." In the light of this statement… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Critically analyse Hume's argument that causality is a matter of habit/custom involving psychological principle of… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Does the rejection of metaphysics as proposed by Logical Positivists relate to problem of meaning or problem of… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) Why does Strawson consider person to be a primitive concept ? What implication does it have for the mind-body… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) "All human knowledge is empirical and therefore relative." Critically examine Jaina theory of sevenfold judgement… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Discuss Rāmānuja's criticism of Śaṅkara's conception of Brahman and Īśvara (God). (20 marks) (b) Present Bhatta's… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Elucidate Naiyāyikas account of fallacies of the middle term in relation to five characteristics of valid middle… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) "Ignorance of dependent origination is suffering while its knowledge is cessation of suffering." Present an account… 50 marks

Paper II

  1. Q1 (a) What is meant by justice as fairness? Explain Rawls' theory of justice. (10 marks) (b) Critically examine the… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Elucidate why the absolute nature of sovereignty was rejected by Laski. (20 marks) (b) Do you agree that duty and… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Explain Historical Materialism and discuss its relevance in the context of social development and change. (20… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) "Severity of punishment should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime." — Do you agree that while… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Elucidate the personalistic and impersonalistic aspects of God. (10 marks) (b) Can religious beliefs be justified?… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Critically examine Plato's apriori proofs for the immortality of the soul. (20 marks) (b) In what sense is God both… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Critically examine the arguments of Nyaya for the existence of God. (20 marks) (b) Examine the significance of the… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) "All evil is either sin or punishment for sin." – St. Augustine. Critically discuss. (20 marks) (b) Does religious… 50 marks

2022 Mains

16 questions · 800 marks

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Paper I 8 Qs · 400 marksPaper II 8 Qs · 400 marks
All 16 questions from 2022

Paper I

  1. Q1 (a) How does Plato use the theory of forms to establish the relation between epistemology and metaphysics ? Discuss… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Provide a critical account of Heidegger's Being-in-the-world and discuss the problem of 'authenticity' in the… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) How does Kant construct antinomies to illustrate the illusory tendencies of pure reason ? Explain and examine the… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) How does Soren Kierkegaard define the notion of 'subjectivity'? Explain it with reference to three stages of… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Examine and evaluate the proofs given by Sāmkhya philosophy to prove the existence of Puruṣa. (10 marks) (b) What… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) How compatible is Buddhist theory of momentariness with their theory of Karma? In this regard how do Buddhists… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Inspite of accepting the intrinsic validity of knowledge, why and how Prabhākara and Kumārila differ in their… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) 'Brahma satyam jaganmithyā, jivo Brahmaiva nāparaḥ'. In the light of this statement explain the ontological status… 50 marks

Paper II

  1. Q1 (a) Discuss the role of enlightenment movement in the rise of humanism. (10 marks) (b) In the age of individualism and… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) What arguments does Bodin present to contend that sovereignty must be absolute, perpetual and undivided? Is Bodin's… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Do you agree that economic development does not on its own lead to human development and social progress? Give… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) Discuss propaganda as a challenge to democratic form of government. (20 marks) (b) Does idea of unconditional… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Write an essay on Spinoza's notion of God and His attributes. (10 marks) (b) "One can have morality without… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Present a critical exposition of different arguments offered by St. Thomas Aquinas to prove the existence of God… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) "An unquestionable acceptance of only one Absolute Truth will inevitably result in religious exclusivism." Discuss… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) Discuss the main points of distinction between a priori and a posteriori arguments for the existence of God. Which… 50 marks

2021 Mains

16 questions · 800 marks

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Paper I 8 Qs · 400 marksPaper II 8 Qs · 400 marks
All 16 questions from 2021

Paper I

  1. Q1 (a) "There is a red chair." How would Plato explain this statement with the use of his theory of forms ? Examine. (10… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Discuss Hegel's Dialectical method. Explain how his dialectical method leads him to the Absolute Idealism. (20… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) What are the main arguments put forward by Moore in his paper "A Defence of Common Sense" to prove that there are… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) Present a critical exposition of Husserl's criticism of 'natural attitude'. How does Husserl propose to address the… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Does the seed contain the tree ? Discuss with reference to Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Philosophy. (10 marks) (b) Explain with… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Explain with reference to Yoga Philosophy, the nature of kleśas. How does the removal of these lead to kaivalya ?… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) How do the advocates of anirvacanīya-khyāti refute the position of the Naiyāyikas and establish the position of… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) According to Śrī Aurobindo, 'the awakening of the psychic being and its gradual prominence over all other parts of… 50 marks

Paper II

  1. Q1 (a) Discuss critically the distributive theory of justice as propounded by R. Nozick. (10 marks) (b) How does Rousseau… 50 marks
  2. Q2 (a) Discuss whether Amartya Sen's idea of justice is an improvement upon Rawl's theory of justice. (20 marks) (b)… 50 marks
  3. Q3 (a) Discuss anarchism as a political ideology. Is it possible to dispense with political authority completely? Give… 50 marks
  4. Q4 (a) Discuss the views of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar regarding caste-discrimination in Indian society. What are the measures… 50 marks
  5. Q5 (a) Discuss the nature of God as propounded in Nyāya philosophy. (10 marks) (b) Discuss the possibility of Absolute… 50 marks
  6. Q6 (a) Discuss the concept of immortality of soul with special reference to Hindu tradition. (20 marks) (b) Elucidate the… 50 marks
  7. Q7 (a) Discuss the role of reason and faith in religion. Can reason be a regulative force in the formulation of religious… 50 marks
  8. Q8 (a) What is non-cognitive theory of religious language? Explain critically in the light of R.B. Braithwaite's views… 50 marks

How Philosophy answers are marked

The shape the examiner expects, what earns the marks and the traps that lose them: the same card our rubrics for this subject are written from.

Answer skeleton

  1. State the position
  2. Argument
  3. Strongest objection
  4. Evaluation

What earns the marks

  • Reconstruct the argument, do not summarise the philosopher
  • Use precise technical vocabulary
  • Always present the strongest counter-argument
  • Paper II: apply to concrete moral and political problems

What earns the extra mark

  • Exact term in Sanskrit or Greek where apt

Traps that cost marks

  • Biography of the philosopher
  • Vague paraphrase
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